Introduction to Electronic Components A Step By Step Guide

1. 1 Introduction: Hello, and welcome to this new course. This is Education Engineering Team, a team of skillful engineers dedicated to help you reach your full potential and master new skills while getting a certificate. Today, we have a new course. This course is about basic electronics components. And in this course, we will go through all the basics of electronic components, this is the course outline. So starting with the components of electricity, volt ometer basics, the measuring of electricity, circuit diagram basics, the resistors, Omslow, the cabsor, the inductor, the diode, and the transistor. This course is intended for those interested in learning the basics of electronics. The topic discussed during the course are listed here, as you can see in a brief outline. The topics up to and including Omslow are considered basic. The remaining topics will cover additional fundamental components of basic electronics. The course will be presented in platform discussion here, neodymi along with guided practices and opening question format for all of you, the course uses a standard volt O meter for registration. If the participant has a different volt O meter or voltmeter, the range sitting head and or readout will be different. Readings for the sample activities given in this presentation are based in the readings while using test bed and are indicated for registration purposes only. Your reading may be slightly different. We will begin by discussing the three components that make up electricity, then extensive Time will be spent on how to measure the three components of electricity during this section. Two of the three components voltage and current will be explored. This section will cover form basics and allow you to become familiar with the most important and most basic piece of test equipment, which is voltmeter or a meter. The next section on circuit diagrams will present how electronic components are symbolized on an electronic roadmap called a schematic or a circuit diagram. Many of the symbols presented represent new concepts for many of you, and these concepts will not be fully developed before the section is covered and money will not be developed at all during the course. The intention here is to derive the fundamentals of inter breting circuit diagram so that these illustration of the arrangements of electronic components can be used to help with the remainder of the course. The final of the three components resistors will be covered next. How the three components are related mathematically is Omslaw. This fundamental law will be covered in details. These sections make up the basic material of electronic. Four additional components common to virtually all electronic circuits are cabistors inductors diode, and transistors. These topics will be covered with a lever of details that will familiarize the audience with the function of these components and the basic of how they work and react in different illiteration. That's all for the introduction. I hope that you get a clear idea of what you will get in this course. I'm sure that you will enjoy this journey with us and that you will gain a lot of knowledge. And some of the basic electronics component concepts will be changed in your mind after this course. I advise that you take it if you are in the microcontroller programming or electronics industry so that you can enhance your knowledge and get certified in basic electronics. This is Education Engineering Team and Haby learning. 2. 3 Voltage Current and Resistance: Hello again. Today, we will talk about the components of electricity. We will talk about voltage, current resistance, types of currents, AC and DC and different types of circuits, close, open and chart. Let's start by talking about voltage, current, and resistance. As you can see in this image, we can use water to visualize how electricity works. As you can see here, water flowing through a house is a good way to look at electricity. Water is like electrons. In a wire, flowing electrons is called current. This water that comes out of this bibe you must imagine it as electronic or electrons. Busher is the force bushing water through a house. Voltage is the force bushing electrons through the wire. So we have electrons for water, voltage for brusher or water brusher. Friction against the whole was slows the flow of water. So resistance is the force that slows the flow of electrons. So when the resistance increase, it will decrease the whole amount of water coming out of the bipe. If we increase the brusher forcing the water through the house by opening up the bit, the water flows faster and squares further. The opposite happens when we reduce the brusher. The water flows slowly down to a trickle. In electricity, the force bushing electrons through the wire, current is voltage. If the voltage is increased, more current flow. If the voltage is decreased, less current flow. Now imagine keeping the brusher constant and visualize what happens. When we change the amount of water available to flow through the house. If there is lots of water, the water will flow out at full force. If there is limited water, no matter how hard you wash, the water will only flow out at small trickle. In electricity, if there is ample current available, it will flow through the wire at full capacity. If you limit somehow the amount of current, then the current will only flow at a reduced rate. Finally, Imagine what happened if you kept the brusher and the amount of water available constant, but restricted the diameter of the hose, like butting your finger over the end. The restriction prevents the oil water from coming out. But the water that does come out comes out with greater force. It will square it further. Also, the water behind the restriction actually slows way down to it, it's tend to go out of the restricted hole. The same thing would happen if the interior wall of the house was made very, very rough. The water molecules would run into the rough surface and slow down. There is very much friction. In electricity, the current does not flow through a wire without running into something along the way. This is always there is always some friction, but electricity, that friction is called resistance. We resistance goes up, the amount of current flow goes down. We resistance goes down, the amount of current flow goes up. Now you can examine that yourself with a water bib and test different concepts. But this is a thing that we should mention at the beginning of our course so that you know what are electrons, what voltage, what is resistance. And we try to make a real life example using water. Now, let's look at this image here to summarize what we have learned. As you can see in A, we have low brusher, so small amount of water. Low brusher and small amount water is coming in A. While in B, there is high brusher, large amount of water. As you can see, the water will go further since the brusher here is high. While in case large diameter bib, as you can see, this diameter is a way much larger than this. Then large amount of water will come out. Here, the brusher is constant, but the amount of water that came out of here is a way much more. This means that this be has low resistance in electricity terms, and this one these two has high resistance since they have a small diameter, while this one has a high resistance. This is the Bb example for voltage, current, and resistance. I hope that you got the idea. If you have any question, please ask in the Q and A dashboard. Thanks for watching. 3. 5 Types of Current: Hello again. Now let's talk about type of current. There are two types of current. The type is determined only by the direction the current flows through a conductor. The first type is direct current or DC flows in only one direction negative toward positive ball of source. The second type is alternating current flows back and forth because the balls of the source alternate between positive and negative. This means that if the current alternative is from flowing in one direction, 1 minute and then reversing to the other direction the next moment, the current is alternating current. Now, let's look at this schematic. As you can see, this schematic shows AC current vocabulary. This is the maximum positive value, and this is the maximum negative value, this line and this line. This is the value to be measured voltage or current, as you can see, starting from zero. It will go in the positive direction. Then it will go in the negative direction. This means that this is a AC current, an AC current, since it goes in both direction, positive and negative, if it only in the positive direction, then it will be a DC currant. Let's look at some terms here. The point from here, A to B is called one cycle. This is one cycle. As you can see, half of it in the negative direction and other half in a positive direction. We can also call the point from zero to this point cycle or one cycle. This axis is the time axis. And as you can see, this is the distance traveled in one cycle, which is called wave length. These are the basic concepts that you need to understand about AC and DC in currents and voltage, they are very much the same. In DC, it will be a constant value in one direction, while in AC, it will be a value that alternate between positive and negative direction. Thanks for watching. See you next lesson in which we will talk about circuits. 4. 6 Types of Circuits: Hello. Now let's talk about circuits. A circuit is a bath for current to flow. There's three basic kinds of circuit, open, close and short. Open circuits in which the bath is broken and interrupts current flow. Closed circuit in which the bath is complete and current flows where it is intended. While short circuit, the bath is corrupted in some way and current does not flow where it is intended. Let's look at this schematic. As you can see here, we have three circuits, A, B, and C. In A, this is a closed circuit. As you can see, this is a battery, and this is bulb or bulb light. Two wires are connected directly to the battery and current flows correctly. Now if you looked at this schematic, the battery and the bulb are connected, but in a mis dub banner. So broken insulation allows wire to touch, producing a short circuit. These two wires are not sulated. So cabar appears, and if two wires are connected together in that circuit, this means that there is a short circuit here and current won flow. In this circuit, we can see that there is a battery and a ball, but one of the two lines is broken here. Breaking wire reduce Open circuit. That's it for types of circuits. And the next lesson we'll talk about volt or meter basics, and we will go in depth. Thanks for watching. 5. 7 Practical Introduction to Digital Multi meter DMM: Hello, and we'll come to this New lesson, which I will talk about digital multimeter. This is a quick introduction to this device. The one that I will be showing you is Unity, as you can see. Okay, let me show you a few things. Now, this device is basically used for showing on this LCD, showing digital readings for volt or Amber and other stuff that I will talk about now. So let's take a quick introduction to the basic components here. Now, if you looked at the bottom here, you'll find there is a com, which is the common. Usually, we connect the black wire to this opening or this hole. And here we have like three openings, each one with the type of the thing that it's used for measuring. So this one is used for measuring Tin am max. So Tin amp max if you placed any device that will consume more than Tin amp, the fuse will be plown. So this one is used to measure current in milli amps, and it's also for measuring the temperature in Silss. This opening is used for measuring volt on the diode and the hertz. As you can see, each of these is used for a certain thing. You can't use it for any other thing. Now let's move up here. As you can see, we have this LCD display. It's used for displaying the results. And if you take a good look at it, you will find that it has a lot of things. Now we have the bar button here. If you click on that button, the display will turn on. We have the whole button here. If you click the bar button and took a reading, then press the whole button. The reading will remain on this LCD display. It won't move, as you can see, it's stating hold. Okay. Now, this is a quick introduction. Here in the back, we have, like, something that can help keeping this up if you want to use it and to take readings. Now, let's take a quick look at this dial as you can see, you can move it away to choose different things. Now, if we turned on the bower, let's start from the bottom. Let's start with the Amber, as you can see. Here we can measure 20 million bere, 200 millimbre up to ten and bare AC. As you can see, A with this sign with shape means this will be used for AC readings. And if we removed here from 10200 milli and 20 milli and bare DC, this constant line means DC. So these three will be used for DC readings. And if you want to measure the hertz, we will move this. It will measure up to 20 kilohertz. If you want to measure the kebestans, we can measure from nanofarad to 200 microfarad. As you can see, you can change the reading from here. If you want to measure the temperature, you can choose this one. If you want to measure the other readings, such as diode or connectivity, you can choose from here. Let's move on. This is the reading. Let me just as what you can see here, we have starting from 202 kilo, 20 kilo, 200 kilo, two mega, 20 mega, and 200 mega Om. So all of these can be used for reading the resistance. Next, we have these readings for volt. As you can see, there's a constant line. So volt DC, starting from 200 milli 2,201,000 volt. Here is the same. We have volt with the sine wave shape, which means AC volt, 2,200 and 750 volt AC. So you just need to move the dial to this point so that you can take the readings in volts and it will adjust itself or the LCD screen. Now, one thing that you need to know before move on is that when you choose the reading from here, if you want to measure volt AC, have to connect the wire. You have to look here. Here we have the volt, so I will connect the red wire here and the common here. Then I will measure volt. If I want to measure Amber, let's move. I will move to Amber, as you can see here, Tin am, DC. And since I'm measuring Tin Am, I will but the red wire here and the black wire here. These are the wires that I'm talking about. Let me show you. These are the two wires. This is the red, and this is the black wire. The black is usually connected to the common, and the red is usually connected to one of these three, depending on the dial dial movement. So if I want to measure herds here, as you can see, I will go and choose hertz from here. That's it. Make sure that before moving this from one to another, you turn off that LCD display because if these two wires were connected to something and you moved, let's say, from Hertz to Amber, it might break your digital multimeter. So make sure to turn off before moving this wire from one type of fading to another. That was a quick introduction to how to use a digital multimeter to measure different things. And we will talk in more details about resistors, cabstors, inductors, and other things. But that's it for now. If you have any questions, please ask in the Q and A board. Thanks for watching. This Educational Engineering Team. 6. 8 Volt Ohm Meter Basics: Hello and welcome. Today we'll talk about volt meter basics, measuring electricity. The common function for volt 0 meters is measuring voltage, AC and DC in different ranges, measuring current AC and DC in different ranges, and measuring resistance in ranges and continuity. In addition to measuring semiconductor performance, transistors and diodes in addition to cabisors As you can see, in this slide, this is one of the basic meters or volt on meter. This is the meter reading digits, and these are the scaling, DC voltage scale, as you can see here, there is a V plus a sign here. This sign means DC. AC volt scale, as you can see, Vleter plus an AC sin or all sine, function selection. As you can see this Bb is used to choose any function. From this, it will rotate in any direction. Function selection, this one is for function selection. B these two brbs are used to measure the components. These are two wires that are connected to the components to be measured. And as you can see, this is a very basic meter. Now let's talk about other components that this meter might have. As you can see here, there's DC current low, as you can see here. This measures from 200 micro bear to 200 million bare. This is for small DC current. This is for large or high DC currents, ten amps. This is the diode checker, as you can see, there is a diode drawn here, and this is the transistor checker. This is for resistance measuring, as you can see, starting 200-2 thousand kilo. You can choose any of these to measure them. And I think that this is the most common type voltmeters. Other type might have other functions, and depending on how much your budget is, you can choose A. As you can see, there's three bobs here. This one is A for measuring Amber in DC. And this one is for measuring voltage or small currents, and this is the common must be connected all the time. This one is moving from here to here depending on the amount that I want to read. And as you can see, it says ten ADC, which means that this will be used to measure the amber or the current in DC, while this one is used to measure voltage, resistance and the current in Mili and bear. So you have to be careful in dealing with these three brubs. You have to connect each one to the right blaze as mentioned here. Now we won't use it in practical. We will use in the experiment sections, but you need to understand how it works and how to use it. Let's see the volt on meter basics. We mentioned earlier that it will be used to measure voltage, voltage type, scaling, safety, physical, and equipment for measuring current current type, scaling, blast safety. Now you have to be careful using a multimeter or volt ometer. You can also measure resistance and do different scaling. We will do this in practice or practical experiment next. But now you are ready to actually use this meter and we will cover these three functions. I will show you how to measure voltage, then how to measure current, then how to measure resistance in slides or theoretical manner at first, then in a practical manner. That's it for now. Thanks for watching. 7. 9 Measuring Voltage: Measuring voltage. Voltage type, there is two type of voltage which is DC and AC and we did mention the difference between them earlier. When measuring voltage, the meter blobs are blaced across the voltage source. The volt O meter used to separate functions and ranges to measure DC and AC because AC is constantly changing waveform, measuring AC voltage is not a simple matter. This volt O meter measures base wad RMS voltage and we must mention that when measuring voltage, the volt ometer is used to sample the voltage across the source, which is different than when measuring current where the current in the circuit must flow through the volt o meter to be measured. This makes it far easier to measure voltage in a circuit because the operator can simply place the brbes across the component as it is wired in the circuit. While in measuring current, the operator must physically interrupt the circuit sold off and connect and insert the volt ometer into the circuit. So you might have to unser a component, remove its connection so that you can measure the current flowing through it. We must point out that the two voltage measurement trangesO for the C and other for the C, and we will see how to measure both of these. Now let's look at this digital multimeter or volt a meter. We must scale set to highest predictable. If we are measuring resistance and we doesn't know or we don't know how much that resistant is, we must put the scale at the highest value. Now the bbs must be inserted into the shacks, as you can see here, and we must know the voltage polarity. As you can see in these two batteries, this side is the positive and this battery, this side is the positive. We must bless the positive b here and the negative b here to better measure the voltage. Now let's look at how we can measure that battery voltage, set up volt meter on 600 volt DC, as you can see here. Are pointing at 600. Well, DC, since this is a DC battery, we must touch redbbe to blast here. As you can see, this is the red bob and touch black blob to negative, as you can see here. Then we must read the voltage to the nearest 1 volt. As you can see here, this is a nine volt battery. So it's displaying nine. And you can try this at home. I'm sure that you have multimeter and a battery. This is a very simple technique, and we must be sure what we choose. I'm measuring a DC around here, so I choose volt DC. If I'm measuring AC, I must choose volt AC. So you must take very good care of this setup before you start measuring anything. And now let's touch to the negative battery, the red bb, as you can see here, we are reversing the connection, and we touch the black brbe to the positive side. We are reversing the connection, and we read the voltage, the nearest 1 volt. As you can see, there is a minus sign here, which shows that the volt is negative since we are measuring it in the reverse manner. The purpose of this exercise is to show that the volt ometer can tell the difference between negative and positive voltages. We must point out that some volt or meter, particular analog type will not be as forgiving that putting the brbes on reverse voltage can damage the meter. So if you have an analog volt or meter, you shouldn't try this. Just place the positive on the positive side and the negative on the negative side. Now, let's see if we are to measure to take another example, using a voltage scale that is closer to the actual voltage showing an improvement in the resolution. So if we know that this is a nine volt batter, why choosing a 600 volt scale. Or if we know that this battery will measure a volt 1-20. Why choosing 600? This will decrease the resolution significantly. In this case, we know that this is nine volt battery. So we are adjusting the scale. Now set up the volt meter 200 volt DC scale, touch red bb to the positive and touch black Bb to the negative. Let's read the voltage to the nearest point 1 volt, not 1 volt. As you can see, 9.5 volt, which means that we have a much higher resolution. Still, there is a zero here. Now, if we did another adjustment and place the voltmeter in the 200 volt DC scale, as you can see here, now let's touch the red blob to the positive and the black bulb to the negative and read the voltage to the nearest 0.0 1 volt, as you can see here, 9.5 and the zero came here, unlike the previous example, as you can see, the zero is here. Now it's here, so we have a much higher resolution. This is a very good example that you must at least have a clue how much the voltage should be or what range so that you can get a good result. Now let's look at this 1.5 volt battery example, set up the volt omit or 20 volt DC, touch the red blob and the black blob in the positive and negative direction using a 1.5 volt battery. Read the voltage to the nearest 0.0 1 volt. As you can see the reading is 1.52. The two here means that we have a very, very high resolution, and that we can measure in millivolt range, not just volt range. Now we'll see the next example in which we will look at battery, but in the millivolt scale, now let's set the volt ometer to 200 millivolt scale. Scale is reading 202,000 millivolt or 2 volts, touch the red blob to the positive and black bb to the negative. Okay. Now we are using the 2000 millivolt scale. We are actually using the 2 volts scale because 2000 millivolt is the same as 2 volts. But because the display is in millivolt, there is no decimal point in this case. A reading of 1527 millivolt is the same as 1.527 volt. So as you can see here we are using the millivolt range and we are setting it here in the volt ofmere. As you can see now, in this 1.5 volt battery, we can read the voltage to nearest 0.00 1 volt, and the reading is given as 1527 volt. It's equal to 1.5 to seven volt. So it's the same, but you just make the resolution away much higher. Now let's see if we want to look at the other example. In this example, we are setting our volt meter on 2000 millivolt DC scale, and we're touching the red bb with the positive and the negative b with the negative side. We are using nine volt battery, and this is clearly an over voltage situation, not the reading, it's one. So you must know what happens if you use a scale that is too low for the voltage being measured. As long as you do not exceed the maximum voltage value of the meter, in this case, 600 volt, there will be no physical damage to the meter. The meter indicates an over voltage situation by displaying a single digit one at the far left. This overage indication is consistent with the other functions to be looked at later. So one means that we have over voltage, and we didn't choose the right resolution. Now, let's talk about safety and measuring. When measuring voltage, the voltage being measured is exposed to the operator and flowing through the props. By cushions, B alternative. Or be attentive. Watch what you touch. You shouldn't touch the brbes while measuring voltage. The brbes have sharp bonds so that you can make precious contact. Use the protective shields when brbs not in use, so that they won't harm anyone. Observe the meter maximum limits for voltage and care. Fuse are a last resort protection feature. If you blow a fuse, you made a mistake, a very big one, actually. So you must spend some time in safety so that you won't get harm or you won't harm anyone around you. The operator of the voltmeter could be exposed to lethal voltage and current level. Also in brbing live circuit, careless cross contact, and the resulting short circuits could root equipment damaging levels of voltage and current the circuit under test. So you might harm the circuit, damage components while measuring or while using digital multimeter or volt meter. You must practice before going to circuits. You must practice with the components. You must practice with a damaged circuit, then go to the real life circuits and real life problems. A good technique is the do a dry run of rob placement with bower turned off. During the dry run, the operator can see if the bro placement is correct and not short circuiting to damaging voltage and currents. Bracte brbplacement, and once confident, turn on the bower source to make the measurement. Another good technique is to start all measurement at the highest scaling level and then adjust the scale downward to the appropriate level. There are usually automatic protection features in volt ometers, but it is the best or it is best not to consistently depend on them doing their intended jobs. That's it for measuring voltage and for safety and measuring voltage, I know that this lesson was really long, but I'm sure that you learned a lot of things in one lecture, and we kept it connected since these all experiments are related to each other. Thanks for watching CU next in measuring color. 8. 10 Practical How to Measure DC Voltage: Hello, and welcome to this new last one which I will teach you how to measure volt. So in order to measure voltage, you need to know a few things. First, there are two type, the AC and the DC type, as we explained earlier. This watch will measure AC voltage 2-750, as you can see volt, plus the AC sign here. And here, it can measure from 200 millivolt up to 1,000 millivolt in DC. As you can see, we have a V plus a dash means DC. So first, you need to make sure that you are this digital imeres turned off. I want to measure DC voltage for this battery. Same for AC, if I want to measure AC. For DC, as you can see, I have to go to this range, and I know that this battery is around 9 volts. I'll go with 20 volts, as you can see here, you have sit on the 20 volts. And in the com, I have to connect the two blobs between C and volt Bob. So the black the common the red to the volt, turn on the watch. And as you can see here, we have a positive and a negative. The red will go to the positive and the black will go to the negative. As you can see in this LCD display, we have like 9 volts, and this is the same thing that's written, 9 volts DC, and this battery is also nine volt DC. Same goes for AC. If you want to transfer to AC, if you want to test the AC voltage on your plug your house, you need to go to 750 here, and using the same tbbs, Blarty doesn't matter here. You can apply the black to the right and did to the left or vice versa, then turn in the display and will give you the SE reading here. Same concept, applied for both. As you can see, it's very easy to measure voltage using this watch, but you have to make sure not to move from SC to DC while the bower is on, you need to turn off, then move to DC. If you move from SC to DC, while the bower is on, you might damage your digital multimeter, so you need to take care of this, take good care and big percussions not to do this. Stay safe. Try not to touch the props when measuring voltage. So you need to touch the props from this place, not from this place because you might harm yourself. That's it for the measuring voltage lesson. Thanks for watching. Have a nice day. If you have any question, bee asking the Q and A board. I'm here to help you. Happy learning. 9. 11 Measuring Current: Hello. Today we will talk about measuring current. What is current? Current is the flow of electrons through a conductor. The water analogy is that current is like the water flowing through a hose. Current is measured in ambers and show from this illitration, one amber is a large number of electrons flowing past a spot in the conductor in 1 second, as you can see in this illitration, one amber equals that number of electrons. I won't read it in 1 second. Current normal electronics can be in the range of hundreds of amps, to millions of an amp micros, to billionth of an amp nans. You will generally work with 1010s of amps down to microsoft amps in the typical electronic devices. You want deal with higher value than ten amps since they require special device for measuring them and they are mainly used in factories, not in everyday electronics or in circuits or common circuits. So now, let's look at current measurement. There is greatest potential for meter damage when measuring current than any other function. Just as in voltage, there is two kinds of current associated with the voltage, AC and DC. This meter will only measure DC. Me expensive meter will measure both currents. To measure current, the volt o meter must be inserted into the circuit so that the current flows through the meter. There is no way that you bless the positive and negative bs and say, Hey, I just measured current. This won't work, like voltage, you must blase it in the circuit, not on the circuit. So we must again, mention safety during these measurements, and we must spend some time to amplify your knowledge and how to use the volt ometer to measure currents the right way. And we mentioned that the current must flow through the meter as opposed to measuring voltage when it was only necessary to sample the voltage surrounding the source. Generally, to have the current flow through the volt ometer, an existing circuit must be broken and soldered and the meter brbes connected to either side of the break, the volt ometer then becomes part of the bath through which the current must flow. There are two current ranges, high upto ten amps and low 200 milli amps or 0.2 amps and below. Internal fuses provide some meter protection for over current situation because there is such a wide range of current scales, there are two physical blobs jacks for the two ranges. This allows for better protection, a hard fuse to handle up to ten amps of current, and a more fragile fuse to protect the sensitive circus needed to measure small currents. Now, we will see these two ranges in the meter. But we must read that caution. There must be some resistance in the circuit or the current flow through the circuit will be the maximum the source will produce, and this current level could damage the volt or meter. So you must make sure that there is some resistance. You must not connect the volt or meter to measure current directly and blast inside the circuit. In other words, do not connect the volt ometer bbes directly across the battery bolls in the current measurement function. This is useless, and it will damage your volt o meter. So with no resistance in the circuit, the voltage source will provide the full current available to the circuit. There is essential no resistance in the volt ometer blob lines. Therefore, if the brbes are connected directly across the battery ball, the full current in the battery will flow through the volt meter and probably blows the fuse. So we must make sure that there is some kind of resistance in that circuit. If there isn't, you must bless a resistance inside that circuit. A 10. 12 8 Measuring Currents Lab Experiement Explained: Hello. Now let's look at measuring current and practical. We will be using some concepts during the current measurement exercise that will be covered in more details later. So please be patient. It will all come together in the end. In the following exercise, you will use various resistors to limit the current flow in a sample circuit. This is the breadboard or the Boto board. This is simply a board that you use to test electronic circuits. You can bless your elements here and connect Bauer. Then you can see how the circuit function before building a more permanent prototype. Broto stands for prototyping. You need to understand the difference between the interconnected holes here. As you can see, each five holes here are connected together, horizontally, not vertically. And the same is here. These five are connected together. So you can consider them as one bin. The same goes here and here, while these two blue and red are called Bower rails. So from here to here to this pen, this is the negative vowel, and from here to here, this is the positive owl. So if we blast let's say nine volt and ground, this is the ground wire, and this is the nine volt wire. If you connect them here, then all of these spins will get nine volt. You can connect lead to these spins, and you can connect wire and take bower from these spins, while the other bends here in that vertical line are connected to ground. So this is for connected other circuit components here and here to bower and ground. And it's a really useful board as you can see, Again, the vertical rows in the center that have red and blue lines next to them are connected together. The holes in the red row are connected together. The holes in the blue row are connected together. The board as show are configured to have these row as power sources, red for positive and blue for ground or negative. There are four black or there are four banks of horizontal rows. As you can see here, this is one bank, second, bank, third, and fourth bank. They are connected together. The horizontal rows are where the components will be interconnected and the vertical center row will be connected to the circuit, Bower to provide other circuit element with Bauer. Now let's look at measuring current basic circuit. As you can see here, this is a resistor that we will use to limit current, so we won't damage our digital multimeter, and this is a battery, nine volt battery in that case, this is our volt o meter that is connected through the circuit. As you can see here, this is the positive terminal. It's not connected directly to the resistor. We cut the circuit and place the volt o meter right in the middle so that the current will bust through the volt ometer. Now let's look at this circuit in practice. First current measurement. Set up the circuit using 100 m resistor, brown black brown. You need to have 100 um resistor like this one, as you can see. Now connect to the positive bower source and connect another wire to the tab end of the resistor. As you can see, this is the positive ar source, and this is the negative bar source. We must connect the first resistor wire to the positive, and we must connect the other wire to the other terminal of the resistor to a wire, then the black terminal of the volt ometer. We need to set the volt ometer current square to 200 milli am as you can see here, 200 milli amb and we need to blaze the blob in the right blaze here in the milli connector, not in the thin amp connector. Without connecting the battery, Brate touching the volt ometer bobs to the exposed wire ends. You need to take some time to understand this example before going further. Now, let's see, let's connect our battery. And measure the current. With the volt o meter, sit to the 200 milli current scale, touch the black lead to the wire, hook to the high side of the resistor. Then touch the red lead to the lead coming from the positive side of the battery. Now the volt om reader. I will give you 89.2, and this is in milliamps. So the current flowing through that resistor is 89.2. Now, you need to understand that we got the reading in milli amp. So if we want it in amps, it will be 0.0 892 amps. You must multiply that number or divide it by 1,000 to get that reading. Now, if you look here, as you can see, if we reverse the volt meter leads, we can know that the reading became negative 88.0. This is obvious. Since we reverse the two brbs, we will get a negative reading. Now let's return to the volt reads volt bobs to the original position. The is connected to the battery, change the volt current ranges down and know the display reading. What's the best range for measuring the current from a nine volt source through 100 m resistor? You will notice that when you reach the 20 millim brange, it will give you one, and we did explain what one mean. It means out of range, and you miss a mist choose the right range. While in 200 milli brange it gave 89.2. Now, let's look and wire the circuit with a one kilo resistor, brown black red. This is that resistor and measure current with 200 milli brange. Let's see the results. What is the best range to measure the current through a one kilo resistor, as you can see in 200 millim range, give us a zero on the left, which means that we can get more precious reading. So if we switch it to 20 millim, it will give us 9.4 millim. And if we switch 2000 micro am, it will give us out of range. So this is the best let's say the best range for measuring. You must test that for so to get a clue how much current will bust and what is the best, highest resolution scale. Now, as you can see here, let's wire that's with a ten kilo m resistor, brown, black, orange. These are the three curls. Let's measure the current with 2000 micro Ambrang. As you can see, it gave us 955 micro am these are different lab results. If we did another measurement, as you can see, the best range for the tin kilom resistor is the 2000 micro am. Since if we choose the 200 microm it will give us out of range. Now another example, let's say that this is our last example in this exercise using 100 kilom resistor, let's start at 200 milliamp scale and read the current using each of the four ranges and record the result. This will be a good opportunity to again go over converting currents from amps to milliamps, to microamps, and also illustrate how to determine the bis trange for the current being measured. As you can see, in case of 100 kilo Om resistor, brown black, yellow. If we start to do a 2000 millim it will give us 0.09, and going further, it will give us a higher resolution, depending on the range. That's it for the practical bat for measuring C. Next, we will be measuring resistance. Thanks for watching. This is Education and Engineering Team. 11. 13 Practical 1 How to Measure Current: Hello, and welcome to this new last one which I will teach you how to measure current. Measuring current is a little bit harder than measuring voltage because there is two ranges, the milli Amber and the Amber range. So you don't want to confuse these two because this might damage your digital multimeter. So when you are measuring, if you are measuring small amp, use this one. If you are not sure, use this one because it can measure up to Tin amp. But if you measure higher than Tin Amp, you shouldn't use this one. You should buy a watch that has such specifications. Now in order to measure count, you need to move the dial here. As you can see, we have from 20 milli am to thin am AC and from 20 millim to thin am DC. So let's start by stating how to measure count. In order to measure count in a circuit, you need to do a short. So you need to cut the circuit. Let's say that we have a nine volt battery, positive terminal, and we have a lead resistor, and a lead and a ground. This lid will turn on. If we want to measure how much current is withdrawn in this circuit, we need to break this circuit. So now it will become like this. And this. These are the two brbs of the digital multimeter. We must add them in series with the circuit so that we can measure the current. Now, the same thing apply, as you can see, this is a DC volt. The same thing apply for AC. If you want to measure a current that goes through, let's say, a 200 to 20 volt AC blug let's say that this is the AC blag. You need to go to the digital multimeter. Then let's say that this is a light bulb. This is the line, and this is the news. The neutral will be connected directly while the line must go through the digital multimeter. Using these two probes in order to measure this amp that the lamp consumes. I will show you how to do it for the DC circuit, and the same thing applies for the AC circuit. You need to cut the circuit, cut the wire, and let it pass through the digital multimeter. Then you can simply see the results on the LCD display of the watch. Now, let's do this in action. I want to measure this volt, so I must move while the dial meters turned off. Let's move to the DC range. Okay, I will measure small am, so I will go to the DC 200 milliamp. Now I will place the probes that com on the com, and this one on the millim because I know I will be measuring on the milliamp range. Let's turn on the display. And I will take the measurement for a very simple circuit. I have it here. As you can see, we have a lid and a resistor, as I draw earlier. In order for this to turn on, you must connect it like this, the positive terminal to the resistor and the negative terminal of the lid to the ground. And as you can see, it's on, I need to cut the circuit, so I will do the same. I will connect the negative terminal to this, but the positive terminal, I will connect it through this device or through the probes of this digital multimeter. So let me just talk it up here. As you can see, now I have this brbe and this probe. I will connect the negative to the battery and connect the other probe to the digital multimeter. 12. 14 Practical 2 How to Measure Current: [No Speech] 13. 15 Measuring Resistance: Hello. Today we will learn about measuring resistance. When the volt ometer is used to measure resistance, what actually is measured is a small voltage and current applied to the component. There are five ranges, and out of resistance reading will indicate a single one digit. Remember, K means multiple the reading by 1,000. Operating voltage should be removed from the component under test, or you could damage the volt ometer at worst, or the reading could be false at best. When measuring resistance, there is a small voltage supplied by the meter to energize the component. The red blob lid would have the positive voltage. The volt um then measure the voltage and current flowing through the component, and the resistance is calculated using Ohm's law, which will be covered later. You can go through the five ranges. 200 will read up 200 s. 2000 will read up to 2020 K will read up to 20,000, and 200 k will read up to 200,000 while 2000 K will read up to 2 million or two mega m. If their bower is removed from the circuit, there is little danger that the volt could be damaged. So you need to remove the bowel before starting the test. Now let's look at an example measuring resistance. Disconnect the battery from the bold. Remember to measure resistance. The circuit should be unbowered. Put the hundred resistor in blaze. No additional wires are required. Select the 200 range and touch the brbe leads to either side of the resistor. It will read 98.0. Now, if we look here, let's rephrase the pro bleeds and observe the reading. As you can see, there is no difference. It's the same reading 98.0. So this means that the resistor doesn't have volarity you can measure at any of these sides. Now let's talk another example where we can discuss the resolution using the hundred resistor. Let's measure the resistance using each of the other ranges. This is the hundred 2000, as you can see, 089 and in 20 K, as you can see, 0.10, the 200 k00 0.12 thousand K zero zero zero. So it's like outrane and we can't possibly measure that resistor, which is 100 using the two mega Om scale. This will be seriously wrong, and we won't get a value. Note that the resolution of the reading decreases as the maximum reading increase down to the point where it is difficult to get a good resistance reading, which is in this example. Now, if we look at another example, as you can see here, using the one kilo resistor and the 200 range. This is what we get. We used one kilom which is 1,000. It's a way much larger than 200 m range. So it displayed one, which means that there is a reading that is out of range. Must find the appropriate range to measuring the one kilo m. So if you use the 2000 reading, it will give us 984, as you can see here, which is the best resolution for measuring the one kilom. So you must choose the resolution wisely. Otherwise, you will get you will get error or you won't get an accurate result. And this will, let's say that this will damage your calculations because you mis choose the right resolution. So you need to try different resolutions to get the best value with as minimum as possible zeros on the left side. And in that case, the 2000 did the trick for us. Now, use the ten kim and the hundred kiloo resistor. First, determine the appropriate range to use for each resistor. Second, make the resistance measurement. Third, using higher ranges, predict the reading and confirm your prediction by taking the mejoury. This is a good practice that you should do, and these are really simple, let's say, a really simple steps that you can apply. Now, just for fun, use the volt omit atoms that the resistance offered you different body parts. The voltage carat used by the volt o meter is not dangerous, so you can measure the resistance throughout your body, discuss your observation and how your measurement techniques could influence the readings you get from the volt ometer. And I think that this is a really fun practice. Bobs across individual finger will read around 1.8 mega om, probes held between thumbs and finger, one in each hand will measure 1.4 mega. Bobs from the skin on the ankle and skin on the hand will get you a scale of reading. Dry skin versus moist skin, dry, one megaom, moist 96 kilo, light littering heat bobs compared to a fremer grasp on the brbes. Light is one megaom while firm is 300 kim. The bond here is that body contact with the brbes during measurement can influence the O meter reading and should be avoided. Particularly when measuring high values of resistance. You can bring this up again and write yourself at home. You'll know that once you touch the tbobes it will display a resistance. So you need to avoid direct contact with the resistance when measuring it since this will damage your reading or give you false reading. So please take care of this very important note when using the volt ometer or digital multimeter to measure resistance. Thanks for watching. This is Education Engineering Team. 14. 16 Practical How to test Resistors: Hello, and welcome to this neurason in which I will explain to you how to measure resistance. Measuring resistance is a very easy job. You just need to go here to the resistance mark, and we have from 200 200 megaom resistance. You can choose any of these, but if you don't know, you can start big, then move down to the low resistance. If you don't know the resistance that you are measuring, and if you don't have a clue about the measuring range. First thing is going here and choosing the connectors. The black will be in the common, and the red will be in the volt Hertz diode measuring. As I mentioned earlier, you just need to turn it on, then bring these two wires and let's plan the resistor. This is the resistor, place your hand on one end, and the other end, leave it free. And as you can see, it's measuring a number with 0.0, et cetera, which means that we have a smaller resistance. Let's move it to 20 kilo. Now, if we measure, as you can see, we have ten kilo resistor. 9.9 kilom resistor, which is basically at kilom resistor. Now, the other way to measure resistance value is by downloading any of the resistance color coding apps on your mobile phone and use these colors, as you can see, brown, black, orange and gold to find the resistance value. Resistance might come in many shapes. This is a typical normal commonly used resistor while this one that you are seeing here is called heat resistor. It can withstand up to five watts and its value is written r4r7. So 4.7 kilo resistor. And in this case, 4.7. As you can see, the R means the OM. But when R is placed between two numbers, it means that this is replaced with a dot. Now, let's try to measure this resistance. Hopefully it's working. Now, as you can see, it has a very low value. We have the result 0.01, so we need to move down to the 200 measuring range. As you can see now, we have the right measuring, which is five. As I mentioned earlier, it's 4.74, remove the RN blessed dot, so 4.7. So it's basically five, the same as measured in this. A digital multimeter. That's it for measuring resistance. It's a very easy job. Even if you don't have a digital multimeter, you can measure it using the color coding on any website, sear Google for it. And as I mentioned, it comes in many shapes. These are two of the shapes. This one is heat can withstand heat up to five watt when drawing five watt, it will heat up. If you touched it, you can sense some heating. That's coming out of it, but it's well protected. That's it for how to measure resistance. Now, let me talk about how you can check if a resistance is working or not. Now, the first step would be using a digital multimeter to measure the resistance value for sure. And if you have color coding, you can check the measured value with the color coding value. If they were not the same, this means that this resistance isn't working. This is the first step. The second step if the resistance is black or exploded. It's not working, so it's obvious. You have to go back to the data sheet and know its value to replace it. These are the two main things that you can use to check if a resistor is working or not. Basically, the digital multimeter is the best way to check that. The second best way is by using color coding and comparing it to the digital multimeter reading. Otherwise, if it's exploded or if it's in black or if it's burned or if you can smell a burn around it means that it's not working, so you have to replace it with another one. If the colors are there, then you can simply know using the color coding, the resistance value and replace it with another one. If the colors aren't there because it's burned out, you can go back to the sheet and replace it. Thanks for lashing this lesson. If you have any question, please ask the Q and A board. 15. 17 Circuit Diagram Basics and Basic Symbols: Hello, and we'll come. Today, we look at circuit diagrams basics, electronic roadmaps. Basically, each diagram will contain one of these components, resistors, ground cabstor inductor, diode, transistor, integrated circuit, and other miscellaneous component. So you have probably tried to build a circuit using one or more than these elements, or you search Google for a schematic, and you see a lot of components including these and you try to build a circuit yourself. Today, I will help you with that, and we together will build a very small but useful circuit. There are many diagram symbols used to symbolize the various electronic components, and there are minor variations in the individual symbol turbuls and variations with a component class. We will discuss and introduce a basic working knowledge of circuit diagrams. Circuit diagrams are roadmaps that show the pathways that current can take from the current voltage source through the individual components of the circuit to accomplish some task and return to the current voltage source to complete the circuit. The diagram symbols that will be covered are just mentioned here. And you might want to buy these components so that you can understand them in a better manner. Let's see let's look at this circuit. This is a remote decoder circuit, as you can see here. This is the integrated circuit or the IC. This is RA module bar supply, which give us nine volt. This is the ground, this is transistor. This is a resistor. And as you can see, it has a lot of components. This is a switch. This is a regulator, this is a diode and this is our battery. That switch is used to turn on and off that circuit. This is a simple example of circuit diagram. In this case, the circuit decodes the signal sent by a TV remote control and turns on and off electrical relays switches in response to the case brased on the TV remote. This diagram is a really simple one, and these are the four, as you can see here. These are the four switches that we can use this one, one, this one, and this one. So depending on what we brace on the remote control, one of these relays will be turned on or off. Now, we will examine the simple circuit components, this symbol on the left is for fixed value of resistance, this one, symbol on the right chose a butento meter or a pointer that can be moved across the resistance to vary the resistance. We must point out that using various resistance is very common in volume controls on audio equipment, Dimar light for rooms, and a lot of other examples. Generally, a symbol with a pointed arrow associated with it represent variable or changeable component. Not just the source, any other component with an arrow or a pointer would represent a changeable value. Now, if you locked here, grounding through at first appearance is a symbol topic. This is for ground. This is a symbol that we use representing ground. It really does have some differences as represented by these two symbols for ground. A ground is a common return to the current in a circuit to the voltage current source. By convention, the ground connection is hooked to the negative ball of the bar source. So in reality, the ground is the organating source of electrons. This seems to be backwards, but this is the standard convention. In the early days of automobiles, the positive side of the battery and other voltage current sources were connected to ground. This is not true today. Term grounding probably comes from the safety term related to connecting an electric device to emit a rod driven into the earth to provide a safety bath for stray current to flow into the earth and not through the operator's body. For instance, many high structure have lightning rods that are hooked to grounding rods driven into the air so that in the event of a lighting strike, the dangerous voltage and current from the lighting strike flow harmlessly into the earth and not throw humans in the blaze. There are two basic types of grounds as represented by the two symbols, the symbol on the left that looks like a shovel represents a ground connection to an earth ground. Represents a ground, as you can see here, it represents a ground connection to the Earth ground. Commonly there is only one connection between an electrical device and an Earth ground, and that connection is primarily for safety. This could be argued that the Earth ground is also important for brobaFberformance, but the discussion can be done in more advanced courses. The symbol on the right that looks like rack or ***** fork, as you can see here, represents a Chase's ground. A Chase's ground is the metal box or foundation that the electronic device is contained in. The symbol actually represents multiple connection between components and the chases. The Chase's ground is used to provide the common bath for current to flow back to the bar source to complete the circuit. I know that this is too much to understand, but you need to get a clue of grounding and what it really means. Now let's look at these two cabstors. This is the symbol that is used for cabsor fixed and variable cabstor. The function and operation of cabstor will be covered in some details a little later, but you can describe the internal component of the cabstor based on the symbol. It consists mainly of two blades. Or two metal blades separated by a space, as you can see here. One metal blades and the other one, then there is a space between them. That is basically what a cabstor is. To conductors separated by an un inductive space. To give just a brief description of a cabstor, we must mention that cabstors can be thought of tiny and very temporary storage batteries. Cabstor store electrical energy in electrostatic field between the blades. Anyone who has combs their hair or have taken clothing out of a dryer knows what aesthetic electricity is. You can make a connection and this that yourself. Now, if you look at here, we can see the inductor symbol. We must point out that if there was an arrow, the inductor would be variable, as we mentioned earlier, based on the symbol. Let's try to describe the inner structure of that inductor. We can see that consists mainly of a coil of fire or a coil fire or something inside the coil. As a brief introduction to inductors, you need to understand that inductor store electrical energy in a magnetic field that is formed around the coil here. When current busses through it, so if we buss current through here, it will store energy in a magnetic field around that core. Most of you are familiar with the Earth's magnetic field. One theory is that the magnetic field is formed because electrons are moving within the molten metal that makes up the Earth core. Same that happens at a very tiny scale in inductors in a circuit. When you allow cran to bust through the wire, it will generate a magnetic field around it that will theoretically store energy. These three symbols are for diodes. The number of diodes for various purposes. And as you can see the regular diode, the Zenar diode, and the light emitting diode, the one that turn on and off ally once activated, and these three diodes are used widely. Now, if you look here at the transistor, as you can see, this is an NBN transistor, a B and B transistor and a fed transistor. There is a trick to help you identify the type of bibular transistor, which is looking to the direction of the arrow, as you can see here. If the arrow is pointing out, it is not pointing in that is B and transistor. And if the arrow is bonding in, it is pointing in broadly, that is B and B transistor. On the fit, the direction of the arrow identifies the material of the junction in the illiteration. The arrow is not pointing in, it's pointing out therefore, this represents an B junction fit. Now let's look at integrated circuit. As you can see, this is its symbol. This is how it looks in real life. By their very nature, integrated circuits are a collection of components that perform a basic function. It is not necessarily to know what goes on inside the IC, just how the IC interfaces with the rest of the circuit. Therefore, the symbol provides only information on which bin of the IC is connected to the surrounding components. Sometimes there is a descriptive label on a bin, for instance, G and D for ground and VCC for the Bower source. Now let's look at the final element. As you can see, these are miscellaneous elements. This is a battery, speaker, a volt meter. This is a fuse, and this is antenna, and this is a meter. That's it for circuit diagrams and basic electronic components symbols. Thanks for watching. This is Educational Engineering Team. 16. 18 Introduction To Resistor and Color Band Coding: Hello, and welcome. Today we'll talk about the resistor in more details. We will take a good look at resistor defined or resistance defined. Resistance values, ms, color code, intergration, power dissibation, and we will look at resistors in circuits, serious, barrel, and mixed. This is the resistor symbol, as we mentioned earlier. Now let's look at m the first thing which is resistance defined, resistance is the embedment to the free flow of electrons through a conductor. Friction to moving electrons, where there is friction, there is heat generated. All materials except some resistance, even the best of conductors, unit measured in ms, so we measure resistance in ms from one divided by tens of ms to millions of Om. Now let's look at resistor types. There's the mixed value, the variable value, the composite resistive material, the wired wd, and two barometers associated with resistors, which is resistance value in ms, Bower handling capabilities in watts. So these are the two most important factors that you must take care of when mentioning a resistor or dealing with a resistor. Now if we locked here, all 100 m resistor, this is 100 m, that one, that one, and that one. They came in different sizes, as you can see, so they can handle different amount of bower. As you can see, the diameter of each one is different than the other, but they all represent the same value, which is 100,000 m now let's look at this and know the different sizes between composite and YR one resistor, as you can see here, composite types. All of these resistors could have the same resistance value, even though their relative sizes vary widely. So as we mentioned in the previous example, these all have the same resistance, which is 1,000, but they come in different sizes, the same here. Now if you log here, this is a fixed resistor, as you can see. This is how it looks, and this is another shape while in variable resistor or potential meter, as you can see here, that we use in most of the audio devices, this is how it looks. This is its symbol, and this is how it looks in real life. Now, what really inside a resistor? As you can see here, this is a resistor open. There is a ceramic tube, a metal end cab, as you can see here, and a coating, two connecting wires in the two terminals. And here we can see the printed values. And there is also color bands that represent the value of the resistance. If you don't have a volt o meter, you can know its value from the color bands. Now let's look at reading resistor color codes. First, you need to understand that each of these color has a meaning. The first one is the first band. This is the second band, and this is the multiplier, and this is the tolerance. Now we need to model how to read a resistor color code with any practice using a one kilo resistor, brown, black, red, and tolerance band. Let's look at that one kilo resistor. Ten resistor. So gold or silver band is at right. So you need to lead that band, which will be either gold, silver in your right side or right hand side. Not the color of the two left hand color bands which are here, the green one, the blue one. The lift most band is the lift hand value digit. The next band to the right is the second value digit. Not the color of the third band from the left, which is yellow here, as you can see, you must not its color. This is the multiplier, multiple the two value digits by the multiplayer. So we will get a two digits from here, then we will use this multiplier to multiple them. And let's look at, let's say, a more solid example. But first, let us look at this color codes. If it's black and existed in the first digit, then its value will be zero. And so on for other colors until you reach the white one, which is nine, if it's in the second digit, it will have the same value. While if any of these colors existed in the third band from the left, it will be that multiplayer, as you can see, one, 1,000,000. And depending on whether the right hand band is gold or silver, you can add a tolerance of 5% or 10% or in case of no color band, it will be 20%. This is a very simple. Sorry. Now, let's look. If we have one kilom resistor, brown, black, red, and tolerance band, let's orient the resistor with the tolerance band to the right, the gold or silver band. There is no band, we mentioned that it would be 20% tolerance resistor. Let's orient that resistor so the band are toward the lift. Take note that the two significant digit of the resistor value are going to be represented by the two lift most color band. Note that the lift most band is brown, which translates to a value of one, as you can see here, brown means one. And we must know that moving left to right, know that the next band is black. Black means a zero, as we as we can let's say. This is the black one. It's zero. This is the second digit. So now continue moving left to right. Note that the multiplier band is red, which translates to the multiple or multiplier of 100. So multiple that ten times 100, it will equal 1,000 or one kilo. This is a really simple method to measure different values of a resistance of a resistor without using a digital multimeter. Now, reading resistor color codes, practical problem. If we have an orange, orange red, yellow, violet orange, brown, black, brown, brown, black, green, red, red, red, blue, gray, orange, orange, white, orange. I need you to get the value of all of these. Take a five to translate these values using this table. I will upload the course material so that you can use them. You can use these slides to gain more knowledge. The results will be 3.3 kilom, 47 kilom, 100, one mega Om, 2.2 kilo, 668 kilo, 39 kilo. Please pose that video and solve this problem before going any further. The next last one we will discuss Bo disibton in our sistor. Thanks for watching this Education and Engineering Team. 17. 19 Power Dissipation + Parallel and Series Resistors: Hello. Today we will look at bower dissibation in a resistor. Resistance generate heat and the component must be able to diibate this heat to prevent damage. Physical size, the surface area available to disibt heat is a good indicator of how much heat Bower, a resistor can handle. Measured in was, common value a quarter, half, one, five, ten, et cetera. Now let's look at this example. Resistor in circuit series. Looking at the current bath, if there is only one bath, the component in series, as you can see here. There is only one current path flowing through these resistors, so resistors are in series. The main distinction between series and bir circuit is how many bathes the current has available to complete the course from the negative ball to the bower source to the positive ball. In this diagram, all currents from the battery must pass through both resistors. Therefore this circuit, a series circuit. At the point, you need to develop the concept of equivalent resistance. Equivalent resistance is what the total resistance would be if you sub substitute a single resistor the resistor that make up the circuit. In this case, if the two resistors were to be combined and replaced with a single resistor that had the same resistance, that single resistor would be the equivalent resistor. We will get equivalent resistor and replace these two resistor with that resistor. Now if we log here, resistors in circuit series, the equivalent resistor will be the summation of each of these resistors that are connected in series. It's easy to calculate the equivalent resistance of resistors in series. It is symbol the sum of all the resistance. The above referred the first, second, and all subistive resistive or resistance or resistance valued are added together. For example, if R one is 100 and R two is 200, the equivalent resistance would be 300 s. Another example, if R one is 50, R two is ten kilo m, R and R three is 500, then the equivalent resistance for these three resistors will be 10,550. Now let's take a debar at this circuit, R one and R two resistance circuit in series. On your Boto board or bred board, set up the following circuit using the resistance value indicated on the next slide. Calculate the equivalent resistance RE and measure the resistance with your volt ometer. So you need to provide to connect these two values resistors in the bred board and calculate the result. Then you can measure the result using your volt O meter and make sure that you got it right here. This is a very good example, so I suggest that you board that video, calculate the values here, and connect these resistors to Bread board. Then write down the values using the volt on meter here and compare the result with the calculated one. Take five to do this example, then return back to this lecture. Now let's look at resistors in circuits barrel. If there is more than one way for the current to complete its bath, the circuit is barrel. So the current will return from here. It will be distributed to here and here. Then it will take two ways to return to its bath, so these two are connected in barrel. Now let's look at the formula. The left hand formula is really just the same as the right hand formula except it is for two resistors in barrel only, and the algebra has been done on the right hand formula to make it a little simpler. We must point out that by the very nature of a barrel circuit, the equivalent resistance will be less than any of the single resistors that make up the circuit. Sensitive the audience or you need to be sensitive to this fact so that as we go through the exercises, we need to make sure that our results or in our results, the equivalent resistor will be less than any of the two separate resistors. This makes sense, if you think about it, referring back to the waste analogy. If there is more than one hose for the water to flow through, each bath has a relatively narrow hose, which is a resistance. Then what the water sees as it approaches the hose opening is not the narrow opening of just one hose. Is the sum or the total sum of all openings, which would make it appear that there is one large opening to go through. One large opening is like seeing one lower resistance, a bath than the individual hose opening. So the thing that you need to note is this formula works for bar resistor if there's only two resistors, and this is far more than one barrel resistor. So you need to get this right. Now let's look at a circuit example, as you can see here on your bitboard, set up the following circuit using the resistance value indicating on the next slide. Calculate the equivalent resistance RE and measure the resistance with your volt or meter. This is the circuit. These are the values, and please take five to do this example. Now let's look at this parallel challenge. Make a circuit with three resistors in Bar. Calculate the equivalent resistance, then measure it. If we have R one, 33210 kilom 4.7 kilom. Now, let's build the circuit and see what is the equivalent resistance. Let's look at resistors and circuit mix, which means that has series and barrel resistors. If the bath for the current in abortion of the circuit is a single bath, and in another a portion of the circuit has multiple routes. The circuit is a mix of series and barrel. Circuits are usually not just series or barrel. Most practices are a combination of the two. In order to analy these mixed circuits, you need to be able to divide sections of the circuit and look at the smaller section individually. Then once each segment is analyzed, the segments can be bought back together to make the whole circuit. In this circuit, if you look at the two resistors, in the lower left of the circuit here, these resistors are in series. The equivalent of these resistors is the symbol sum of the two resistance values. Next, the equivalent combined resistor is connected in barrel with that right resistor because there are two baths, four electrons going into this portion of the circuit. The equivalent of these two resistors is R one, multiple by R two, divided by R one plus R two, which is the law that we mentioned in this slide, this one. Okay. Now, going back to our slide. Finally, the resistor at the top is in series with the equivalent resistor here at the bottom because the current has only one bath. This is a simple manner of how we can simplify the circuit and get the equivalent resistor. Now, if we looked at this mixed circuit. Okay. Okay, if we look at this circuit, as you can see here, let's start with a relatively simple mixed circuit and build it using orbit board. R one value is 332 and three, 4.7 kilo, 2.2 kilo. And let's see how we can calculate its value. If we take these two resistors R two and R three. This is the low to get the equivalent value or equivalent resistance from them since they are in barrel. Once we get that value, which will be in that case, 1498 we can go further and sum these two values which are in series now and get the result, which will be 330 plus 1498, and the final result will be 1928. You can calculate this yourself using calculator or using your Abel and Baber. And this is a really simple example two barrel and one series. Let's look another example. This is r1r2, R three, R four. These are their values respectively. As you can see here, we can start by summing R two and R three, as you can see here, the equivalent resistor will be 3.2 kilo, and going further, RE and R four are connected in barrel, so we can calculate their values in this low, and the result will be, as you can see here, the result will be 2230, since the final result is 2230 m after summing the equivalent value of these two resistors with the resistor in series here. This is a simple example. I encourage you to do it at home using your Ben and Baber. Thanks for watching next. We will discuss OMS Low. This is Education Engineering Team. 18. 20 Ohm's Law: Hello, and welcome. Today we discuss arms low. The mathematical relationship, E equals I multiple by R. We must at first, do the math. Then we will see Kerch law, a way to predict circuit behavior. It all adds up. Nothing is lost. Let's first discuss arms low. Okay, as you can see here in Oslo, there is a mathematical relationship between the three components of electricity. That relationship is Omslow. E for volts, R for resistance in Ms, I for currents in Ms. The mathematical relationship is E equals I, multiple by R. We can transform it, so R equals E divided by I, or I equals E divided by R. In the following sequence of slides, we will be doing exercises where we will set up a circuit using resistors and voltage sources nine volt battery, predict current using OMslow and verify our calculation by using volt meter. This is the circle of slow ER, E equals I multiple by R, I equals E divided by R and R equals E divided by I. This is a simple way to memorize the law now let's look at this circuit. This is the basic circuit that you use for the following exercises. The volt ometer will be moved to measure voltage resistance and current, as you can see here, this is here for current, and it's placed here for measuring volt or resistors. You must hook up this circuit in your bled board so that you can keep up with the coming slides. Wire this circuit using 100 ohm resistor. Without Bauer applied, measure the resistance of the resistor. Connect the nine volt battery and measure the volt across the resistor. Record your data. Now, let's see, using the voltage and resistance data in ms low, calculate the anticipated current. In this example, equals E divided by R. Example that result in a current of 0.09 amps or 90 milliamps. We divide eight by eight volt by 98.1 s. These are the practical readings using the volt ometer. The result is 90 milli amp. Now, let's insert the volt ometer in this circuit as indicated in this diagram. It must be in series, so the current flow through it, as you can see here. Using the appropriate current range, measure the actual current in the circuit. How does the current compare to your predicting using Omslow? You need to compare the two results. They won't be there will be a slightly different value, but it won't be that different since Omslow is the same as measuring the voltomere, but there is some practical some practical, let's say notes that we must take into consideration, such as heat dissipation and caballoss now let's see the second exercise. Let's select one kilo resistor and calculate the illiterated circuit. Pretend for this exercise that you do not know what the voltage of the battery is. Measure the resistance with the bower removed, and then the current with bower. And record our data. So here we don't know the voltage source. We measure the current and we measure the resistor and using another configuration of OMs low, we can get E equals I multiple by R, using the current and resistance data and Omslow, let's calculate the anticipated voltage. I will equal 9.73 volt. This from the practical measurement using the volt O meter. Now, let's connect the volt o meter in the circuit as indicated here using the appropriate voltage range, measure the actual voltage across the resistor here. How does the current compare to your prediction using Omslow? It will be really close. It will equal 9.7 volt in that case. And we measured here, 9.7 volts, and the measured value is 9.3 volt, which are really close to each other. These are quick exercises to give you through understanding of oms low. Now, let's look at this third exercise this exercise, you use an unknown resistor. So the first one, the current wasn't known. The second one, the voltage wasn't known. Now the resistor isn't known, so we need to calculate it using Omslow we must first measure the current and then measure the voltage. Then using OMs low, R equals E divided by I will give us the current will give us, sorry, the resistor value, which will be 3.3844 or 3.82 kilo. So it's really close to the real value. The previous three exercises, we managed to use Omslow to get the current value, the voltage value, and the resistance value. In each case, two of the three components must be known so that we can calculate the third component that is missing. Now let's look at Omslow in practice. The next series of slides or exercises. We but ms low to use to illustrate some principle of basic electronics. As in the pifous exercises, you will build the circuit and insert the volt Om meter into the circuit in the appropriate way to make current and voltage measurement. Throughout the exercises, record your data so that you can compare it to calculations. Now, let's build this circuit. These are the resistor values, barrel series, and the three are connected in series together. And here we have a meter. Now, if we look at this circuit and Blaze first, let's measure the current flowing through the circuit using this meter. Then move the volt o meter to the other side of the circuit and measure the current here. The current should be the same as the previous measurement, since the current flowing through here is the same that going back here. Now, insert the volt ometer at the indicated location and measure the current here. There should be no surpls that the current is the same. 4.65 milli ams if you are doing this in your bread board, this is the reading of the ameter. Now, measure the voltage across R one here. Using OMs low, calculate the voltage drop across a one kilo om resistor at the current U measure. Here, we can calculate the voltage drop. If we measure the voltage here, using the current and the resistor, we can calculate the voltage. So using slow, E equals I multiple by R. E will equal 4.65 volt. As you can see here, the value is four point okay, 4.65 volt. This is the calculated value. And the voltage on the test bed using the volt meter was 4.6. There is no 65, so this is a very small difference between the two circuits. Now in the next step, you will insert the volt meter in the circuit at two places ilitratd at one and two here and here, record your current readings for both places, add the currents and compare and contrast to the current measured entering the total circuit. So if we add these two currents, they must equal the main current or the main source of current. Now, using the current measure throw number one and the resistance value of r21 kilo, calculate the voltage drop across that resistor. Likewise, do the same with the current measure throw number two and the resistance value of r32 0.2 kim Com beare and contrast these two values of voltage values. As you can see in number one, the value will be 3.2 1 volt. In number two, the value will be 3.168 volt. The value are essentially the same and they should be, since the voltage is the same in barter. As you can see, the voltage here must be equal the voltage here. Measure the voltage across the barrel resistor and record your answer. Cobare and contrast the voltage measure to the voltage drop calculated, the measured value will be 3.17 on the tist bed, and you can see that there is a very small difference, but they are basically the same values. Now, if we looked at this example, let's insert the volt meter into the circuit here. Let's compare and contrast the results. It will measure 4.6 millims and if we did measure the volt here, using the current, you just measure and the resistance R four, calculate what the voltage drop across R four should be. It will equal 1.52 volt. Let's insert the volt ometer into the circuit as illitrated and measure the voltage. This is the practical value. Compare and contrast the measured calculated voltage. It will equal 1.56. They are basically the same. This is one final measurement to complete this portion of the exercise and set the volt ometer indicated here. Recall the three voltage measured previously across R one are two and three and four, add these three voltage together and then compare and contrast the result with the total voltage just measured. So through R one was 4.6. R three was 3.17 while in R four, it was 1.56. The total measure voltage was three point or 9.33. So what you observed was the sum of the individual currents was equal to the total current flowing through the circuit. The sum of the voltage drops was equal to the total voltage across the circuit. This is Kirchoff's law and is very useful in the study of electronic circuit. You also noted that Ohm's law applied throughout the circuit. That's it for Omslow. I know that I did it really quick, but I will upload the slide so that you can grow each of these exercise one by one and apply them in your test bed. This is basically a really simple law in electrons, but you need to understand it correctly. Thanks for watching. And next we will explain cbsors. This is Education and Engineering Team. 19. 21 Introduction To Capacitors: Hello. Today, we will explain cabstors. Cabstor defined physical construction type, how construction affects values and bower ratings. We will also talk about cabstor performance with AC and DC currents, Cabstans values, numbering system, and cabstors in circuits, series, barrel, and mix. Now let's look at this symbol an example of a cabstor. As you can see here, this is a battery, and this is the two cabsor blade with an insulation between them. The positive is charging the positive blade of the cabstor while the negative is charging the negative blade of the cabsor. Now, let's define the cabstor and how it works. Device that stores energy in electric field. That is the definition of the cabstor. It consists of two conductive blades separated by a ncductive material. Electrons accumulate on one blade, forcing electrons away from the other blade leaving n positive charge, as you can see here. This is cabstor charging, and this is a positive, and this is a negative charge in each of these two blades. Think of a cabstor as a very small temporary storage battery. Since this battery is charging that cabstor and will hold it's charged for small amount of time. So it's a temporary manner. Now if we look at here, we can see cabustors and different rating. They are rated by the amount of charge that can be held, the voltage handling capabilities, insulating material between blades. So depending on these three factors, cabustors are rated, and each of these three factors makes a very big difference between one cabstor and the other. The basic unit of combustor is deferrad a single farad in reality can hold a very large amount of charge and in electronic circuits, and the amount of cabustans is usually in the millionth and billionth of a farrod microfarad, bicofarod nanofarod. Cabsors are identified by the type of insulating materials between the conductive blades air, mica, tantalium, ceramic, and polystyrene. So now, if we look at here, its ability to hold a charge. This is the positive blade, and this is the negative one. The ability of the cabstor to hold a charge depends on the conductive blade surface area, that area, space between these two blades and the material that exist between these two blades. It can be air, ceramic, and any other type of material. So the amount of surface area of the conductive blade, the larger the surface area, the more char and for the higher cabistans value. The distance between the blades, the closer the conductive blades are to each other. The stronger the electrostatic field that is developed. When the blades are close together, the attraction between the opposing pols is stronger. The closer the blades are together, the higher the cabs the insulating material between the blades, certain materials are more conductive to separating the balls than others. This allows cabusors to handle higher voltage or to hold a charge longer. Certain materials are very thermally stable and will not expand or contrast as much with temperature changes, therefore making the cabustive or the cubistans value more stable over wide operating temperature. Now let's look at this concept of charging a cabsor. As you can see here, let's spend some time talking about how cabsors charge. Let's use the water terminology that we used earlier to explain resistors. In this illustration, water electrons are entering the tank, which is a cabstor here from the right, as you can see. The rate the water electrons enter the tank, which is a cabstor depends on how much brusher voltage bushing on the water. So depending on how much is the blusher, more water will go up. The outlet valve on the right is closed. So water can which is electronics cannot escape. When there is no water in the tank, which is a cabstor, the reverse brusher voltage from the water electrons in the tank would be zero and the water would rush into the tank, which is the cabstor When the tank cabstor has all the water electrons, it can hold the reverse pressure of the electrons would equal the voltage bushing the water electrons in to the tank, which is the cabustor and the flow of water electrons would stop and remain constant. The tank, which is the cabustor is in a charge state with the brusher voltage inside the tank cabstor equal to the brusher voltage of the water electron supply. In the beginning, the water electrons rush in at a rapid rate because there's no opposing brush voltage buildup. As the busing brush voltage buildup as more water electrons enter the tank, which is the cabstor, the rate of water electrons flow slow until it virtually stops when the tank is full. So basically, this gets closed, water will enter or electrons will enter from this gate, and it will enter fastly at the beginning since there is no voltage here, then slowly it will decrease the speed of flowing electrons as the voltage here increases, consider these as two tanks, one with nine, let's say, 10 volts and one empty. These will equal each other until the two tanks have 5 volts. So think of it like a tank that you are filling with water. And as you can see here, this is how the cabstor look in real life. In the following activity, you will charge a cabstor by connecting a bow source nine volt battery to a cabstor. You'll be using an electro electrolytic castor, a cabstor that use ablarty sensitive insulating material between the conductive blades to increase the charge capability in a small physical baage. Note the component has Blarty identification, plus or minus, and you need to take good care of these polarities, since missing with them will result in blowing the cabustor now touch the two leads of the cabstor together. This short circuit the cabstor to make sure there is no residual charge lift in the cabsor. Using your volt, measure the volt across the reads of the cabsor. Now, connect the capstor as in this circuit, the bustive the negative to the negative terminal, wire up the circuit, and charge the cabstor. Bauer will only have to be applied for a moment to fully charge the cabstor. Quickly remove the cabstor from the circuit and touch the volt on meter blobs, the cabtor leads to measure the voltage. Carefully, observe the voltage reading over time until the voltage is at a very low level down to zero volt. Now, as you can see in this illitration, this is used to discharge a cabstor. We will close the inlet and open the outlet. Then the charge will come out just like water through the outlet until it reaches zero volt. This illistration returns to the water tank analogy to help show what happened after the cabstor is charged and allowed to discharge. The intake valve on the lift is closed here. And the outlet valve on the right is opened. In the previous activity, when the volt ometer was connected to the cabstor a bath was opened for the electrons to flow from the cabstor. The volt ometer does take a little bit of current to make the readings. Initially, when the cabstor was fully charged, there was approximately 9 volts bushing the electrons down the conductor. As the voltage drop in step with the reduced charge, the brusher pushing the electrons to decrease causing a decrease in electron flow. How this showed up on the volt ometer was an initial rabid volt drop that showed down to Crow. In reality, a cabstorr is charged only after a prolonged period of time. The voltage drop is a sympathic to zero, never reaches zero. Now, the cabstor behavior in DC and AC and connecting cabstors in series and Barrel will be discussed in the next lesson. Thanks for watching. This is Education Engineering Team. 20. 22 Capacitors Behavior + Capacitors in Series and Parllel: The cabstor behavior in DC. When exposed to DC, the cabstor charges and holds the charge as long as the DC voltage is applied. The cabstor essentially blocks DC voltage from buzzing through. Once the cabstor reaches full charge, the folwed voltage equals the reverse pressure. The current ceases to follow. I stops, it is essentially blocked. The cabstor behavior in AC. When AC current is applied, during one half of the cycle, the cabstor accepts a charge in one direction. During the next half of the cycle, the cabstor is discharged, then recharge in the reverse direction. During the next half cycle, the button reverses. Essentially, it appears that AC current passes through a cabstor. And this is going to take a little more explaining. During the positive version of the cycle, electrons are drawn from Blate one and added to Blade two. The cabstor is charged with Blade two being negative and blade one being positive. After the week of the positive cycle, the cabstor begins to discharge when the cycle begins to go negative. Electrons are added to blade one and drawn away from Blade two. The cabstor is charged with blade one being negative and Blade two being positive. The audience looks at just one blade, the blade goes from positive to negative and back again just as if the blade were a source of AC. Now let's look at the cabstor behavior. A cabsor blocks the passage of DC. A Cabsor buses AC. We need to summarize this. It just blocks DC once fully charged, while AC can pass through that cabsor. Let's look at Cabstans value. As you can see, the unit of cabstans is the farad. Single farad is a huge amount of cabstans. Most electronic devices are cabsors that have a very tiny fraction of a farad. Common cabstans ranges are micro nanobico. Micro means ten multiple by six in negative six, nano ten to the bow of nine minus nine, BCO ten to bow -12. And this is their sine micro nano and BCO. Now let's look at Cabstans value. The cabsor identification depends on the cabsor type. Could be color bands, dots or numbered. Wise to keep cabsors organized and defied to prevent a lot of work trying to identify the value since their value can be really hard to calculate. As you can see here, this is 108 plus plus or -2% tolerance. This is 104 z, and capsoidentification can be a little tricky and complicated. These two illstration shows the typical numbering system. Some common example, one microfarad is written by 105. 0.1 microfarad is written by 104, as you can see here, Boint 01 micro farad written by 103 1,000 Bicofarod equals one nanofarod equals 102. 0.047 microfarad equals 473 or 473. And 0.022 microfarad equals 223. So it's a little bit tricky to read a cabstor value, but you need to do your best or use the data sheet or simply use Google search. Cabstorne circuits. Two physical factors affect cabastors value, Blade spacing, blade surface area. In series, blades are far above making abstns less. Charge blades far apart, as you can see here. These are two cbstors. They are treated like resistors in barrel. C one multiple by C two, daft by C one plus C two. While, as you can see here, cabstors and circuits in barrel, the surface area of the blades add up to be greater and close together, as you can see here. While here they are a bar, the positive and negative. This makes the cbstans more the cabsor. So the blade area is more. This means the cabsor is more. So the total will be C one plus C two. This is assemble method. Another way to memorize this is to consider the cabstor as the reverse of a resistor. The resistor in series equals R one plus R two, while in series are the same as resistor in barrel, C one plus multiple by C two, divided by C one plus C two, as you can see here. Here, the cabstors in barrel, C one plus C two are resistor in barrel equal R one, multiple by R two, divide bar R one plus R two, surface area of the conductive blades in barrel, cabastor add together. The electrons on the blade connected the negative bolls of the source, bread out across both cabstorblade. The positive change, absence of electrons on the blade attached to the positive boll of the source also spread out. Lets are still only separated by the same distance as if there was just a single cabstor so there is more electrons are exposed over a greater surface but at the same distance. Therefore, the cabstans will be more the symbol sum. That's it for cabstors. Next, we will discuss inductors in more detail. Thanks for watching. This is Education Engineering. 21. 23 Practical 1 How to test a capacitor: Hello, and welcome to this You last one in which I will explain to you how you can taste at a cabsor. So as you can see, here we have a lot of cabsors. Okay? Let me show them to you. They come in many shapes. The barrel shape or the circular shape, this one is called a polarized cabstor. It has polarity. So this is the negative terminal, as you can see, the small or the short one, and we have the negative here sign, and the other one is the positive terminal. So it's polarized. The same thing happens with all of these. As you can see, there is a silver line for the negative terminal. Same here. Silver line for the negative terminal. Same here. Also silver line for the negative terminal, but this one is not polarized. So you can connect the positive to any of these terminal and the negative to the other one, and you can reverse them without any problems. But in this case, you can't. You must connect the negative terminal to this short leg, and the positive terminal to this long lid. So that's why it's called polarized. To test out cabastor, you need to have a digital multimeter that can test cabstans. The one that we have here can measure from two nano up to 200 microfod. There is a more specialized digital multimeter for cabstors that can be used to measure a wider range. Now the ones that we have here, as you can see, you can find its value from here, 2,200 microfarad, 16 volt. I can withstand negative 40 to positive 85 degree. But we can't test this using this watch because it can only measure up to 200 microfarad, and this one is 2,200 microfarad. So let's find another one. As you can see here, we have this one. It's 22 microfarad, 63 volt, so we can test it out using this watch. So now let's test it out by moving to the 200 microfarad. Then we must connect, as you can see here, we have a cabstor sign between these two lines. So we need to connect the two brbs between these two, not using the common between these two because the cabstor sign is between them here. So let's connect this here. And the other one here. Now we have our digital ameter up and ready for measuring the cbstans 22. 24 Practical 2 How to test A Capacitor: So again, this should be the last few steps. First, you need to set the 200 microfarad using this dial. You need to move these two. As you can see here, we have a cabstor sign, so we need to move these from the common to these places between the castor sign, the two probes. Now, turn on the watch and bring these two probes. It's better to short circuit the two terminals first before measuring. Then you can simply add one of these two terminals, as you can see, I don't. And the other one is here. So it gave us, as you can see LCD display, 19.8 19.9. And this is very close to the reading on it. It has a reading of 22 microfarad six 3 volts, gave us around 20 microfarad. So fair enough, this means that this capasor works correctly without any problems. That's it for how to measure a cabsor. You need to make sure that when you watch a digital imeter has the range that you are going to use or measure. Because this one, as I mentioned earlier, measure between two nano and 200 microfarad, and this is not a very large, let's say, range. That's it for this lesson. If you have any question, please ask Q and Abel. Thanks for watching. This is Educational Engineering Team. 23. 25 Introduction to Inductors: Now turning to the inductors. We will talk about inductors defined, physical construction, how construction affects values, inductor performance with AC and DC currents, as you can see here. This is the inductor symbol, and dict inductors are essentially coils of wire that are used to store energy temporarily in a magnetic field. Inductors when combined with cabtors are used in many different kind of electronic circuits because of their bbalityT oscilate or ring energy in one component feeds the other. Back and forth in an oscillating or ringing manner at a specific frequency. This phenomena is called resonance. Additionally, beared inductors in close proximity with overlapping magnetic field allow energy to flow from one inductor to the other. By inducing a current in the other inductor, this is basically how a transformer works. These concepts are beyond the scope of this basic course. However, the audience should be aware of the basic function of the conductor. Now there are two fundamental principle of electronics. One, moving electrons create a magnetic field. Two, moving or changing a magnetic field cause electrons to move or to move. An inductor is a coil of wire through which electron moves and energy is stored in the resulting magnetic field. Like cabstors inductors temporarily store energy. Unlike cabstors inductors store energy in a magnetic field, not an electric field. When the source of electrons is removed, the magnetic field collapse immediately. As you can see, this is a conductor that has current passing through it, and this is the magnetic field. Now, the inductor are simply a coal fire. It can be air wound, nothing in the middle of the coil, just like this one, can be wound around a maybe it can be wound around abnormal material, material that concentrates magnetic field, just like this example or this example can be wound around a circular form droid, like this one. And the second example is this one. While if nothing is in the middle, it's like this one. So depending on the core, it can have different probabilities, and ductans is measured in Henry. Henry is a measure of the intensity of the magnetic field that is produced. Typical indicator values used in electronics are in the range of millihenry, one diverted by 1,000 and microhenry one diverted by 1 million. Let's look at the amount of inductance. As we know, the amount of everything is affected by a lot of value. The amount of inductance is influenced by a number of factors, number of coil turns, number of these turns, diameter of coil, the diameter of this coil, this is the diameter from here to here. Spacing between ten, the space between each one turn and the other, size of the wire used, the size, the thickness, and the type of material inside the coil. So it's a, if it's middle core, it will affect the amount of inductance. As you can see here, this is the air core. This is the iron core. This is the soft iron core. This is a large diameter. This is a small diameter. This is close spacing between turns inductor, and this is wide spacing between cores inductor. All of these affects the inductance of an inductor. Now inductor performance with DC currents. When DC current is applied to an inductor, the wire in the inductor momentarily appears as a short circuit and a maximum current flows. As the magnetic field bell charges, there is a tendency for the current flow to slow down due to an opposition go in the charging magnetic field or the changing magnetic field. Finally, the magnetic field is at its maximum and the current flows to maintain the field. As soon as the current source is removed, the magnetic field begins to collapse and creates a rush of current in the other direction, sometimes at very high voltage. While inductors performance with AC currents, when AC current is applied to an inductor, during the first half of the cycle, the magnetic field builds as if it were a DC voltage. During the second or the next half of the cycle, the current is reversed and the magnetic field first has to decrease the reverse bolarty in step with the changing current. Depending on the value of the inductance, these forces can work against each other, making for a less than simple situation. Now because the magnetic field surrounding an inductor can cut across another inductor in close proximity, the changing magnetic field in one can cause current to flow in the other, which is the basic of transformers. As you can see in this example, this is a symbol transformer. Bears of conductors in close proximity is another itant use of inductors in electronics. The household transformer that converts 120 volt AC wall current into current that will run at we volt DC radio probably use a transformer and other circuits to do the conversion. It is important to go back to the two fundamental principles stated earlier in this unit. Moving electrons a magnetic fields and changing magnetic fields cause electrons to move. This would be a good opportunity to yourself through the process while, see how transform already work. In the next lesson, we will talk about diodes. Thanks for watching. This is Education Engineering Team. 24. 26 Practical How to test and measure Coils: Hello, and welcome to this urlson in which I will explain to you how to test out an inductor. Basically, an inductor is a coil, and here we have a transformer. It has a primary coil and a secondary coil. So we can use these two coils to demonstrate the inductor measurement thing. So it's really easy. You just need to bring your digital multimeter and apply these to the com and the volt diode and heirs reading, as you can see here, the red on the com, the red and the volt diode hertz and the black is on the com. Now move this dial to the diode or let's say sound bazar or connectivity button and make sure that it's working by simply distinct this, as you can see, it's working. Now if you test the Bmary coil, it has a very high resistance, so it won't display or it won't show connectivity. It will just display the resistance value. As you can see, we have 100 100 resistor. Or resistance, okay, 100 m. Now, the primary resistance is usually high. So as you can see here, we have 100 home, 100 Ohm resistor. While the secondary resistance is very small, very small. So this is because it's taking 220 volt AC and the primary coil coil, and it gives only 606 volt on the secondary coil. So this is a center tab. We have the black wire, and we have two blues. When we connect these two, we will find half the resistance of the secondary coil. And you can see that using the connectivity test, you can test this out. Okay? Let me just as you can see, this means that the secondary coil is working. Now let's test the other one. Again, there is a sound. This means that this is also connected. Now, most likely, when you test an inductor, if it didn't show connectivity or resistance, a small resistance, this means that there is a cut in it or there's a problem with that inductor and you have to replace it. So there's two types of tests for the inductors. The first one is the connectivity test. The second one is the resistance test. So let's test using the resistance. We can measure the resistance. So this is a center tab, so the same resistance must appear on the black and blue and the black and this one. So the first blue wire will give us a resistance with the black wire, which is the very same resistance as between this black wire and blue wire here. So let's test the first resistance. As you can see, we have like 0.8 or 0.5 resistance on the LCD. Now we must get another 0.5 between these two. Okay, let me just, again, 0.5 0.4. So the total resistance between the two blue wires will be the sum of these two resistance, which is basically one or point, let me. Let me just fix this to the table. Okay? As you can see, 0.8 0.7 and this is the sum of the resistance that we just measured. This is for the secondary coil. It's a very low resistance around one, while the primary coil has a very high resistance. So we brought these to this one. If you check the LCD, you can see that we'll have around 100. Okay, 77, which is 77 times larger than secondary coil resistance. So this is how to test the inductance of a coil and if it's connected or not, if it has a problem or not, by testing using the connectivity test here or using the m test here because a coil is basically a wire. An inductor is basically a wire that has a resistance that you can measure. For sure, there is other specialized devices for measuring inductance, and it gives you the inductance value, not in or connectivity. It gives you the very same inductance value, but we are using this symbol digital multimeter test out this thing because buying an inductance digital multimeter would cost you a lot. So using this symbol device, very cheap device, you can test inductance using the connectivity or the resistance test. These are the two tests you can use to measure inductance. Have any question regarding this, you can ask in the Q&A board. I'm here to help you. Thanks for watching. This is Educational Engineering Team. 25. 27 Introduction to Diode + Zener Diode and LED: The diode, the semiconductor phenomena, diode performance with AC and DC currents will be discussed, diodetypes basic lead and Zenar. This is the basic symbol of diode. That line indicates that this is the cathode, and this is the anode bard it is a device that allows current to flow in only one direction. There are specialized diodes, the light emitting diode and the ZR diode that will be discussed later. However, the basic principle is the same here. The current will flow in one direction. If currents flow is attemed in the opposite direction, the flow will be blocked. Diode find use in many electronic circuits nowadays. Now let's see the diode, the semiconductor phenomena. Electrons in a metal form, a C of electrons that are relatively free to move about semiconductor materials like silicon and germanium have fewer free electrons. Imbutes added to semiconductor material, I can either add free electrons or create an absence of electrons, which is holes, so if we looked at this small schematic, this is the Ntype and this is the B type, which is holes N type are electrons, as you can see here, they are equivalent currents, electrons and holes. This is the cathod and this is the anode. And in the middle is the debletion region or the junction of the diode. Consider the bar of silicon at the right. One side of the bar is daubed with negative material, excess electrons, the cathode, while the other side is dubbed with a positive material, excess hole, the anode in between is no man's land called the B junction. This is the depletion in the depletion region. This is the B junction that forms a diode. Now, if we locked here, consider now applying a negative voltage to the anode and a positive voltage to the cathode. If we did that, diode is reverse bias, meaning no current will flow, and this region will be away much wider, which means that fewer electrons will buzz or no electrons at all. This is the reverse bias of the diode. Will, in this manner, if you connect to a negative portion for electron, considering our buying a positive voltage to the anode and a negative voltage to the cathode, the diode is forward biased, meaning current will flow since this area is minimized, and the electrons applied here, allow these electrons to go to the junction and the positive on applid here allows hole to go to this side. This will make that area, that debletion area as small as possible, which will allow current to flow. Now if you look at this circuit, set up the circuit illiratd on the bluetp breadboard, resistor diode and a battery. Ensure done the cathode banded end of the diode. The cathode is connected to the resistor. Use a 330 resistor. The resistor in the circuit is a current limiting resistor. So we are using it to limit current so that it won't blow the diode. Now set up the circuit illitrated and the prototype sore to know the cathode. The cathode is now connected the battery negative terminal, and the tool is connected to the resistor and examine the difference between these two circuits and build as rated circuit, measure the voltage drop across the diode that is forward bias. It will equal 0.7. Which is the amount of old that is required to build a forward bias situation for the diode. This is the simplest manner to say this. Now, if AC is applied to a diode, during one half of the cycle, the diode is forward biased and current flows. During the other half of the cycle, the diode is reverse biased and stops current. This is the process of rectification. Allowing current to flow in only one direction. It's commonly used in changing AC into DC, as you can see here. This is the AC signal, and this is the out of the diode. It only allows AC to flow, as you can see, the positive portion of the signal only flow. The negative is zero, since it's reverse bias for the diode, this is commonly used in rectification circuit for turning AC signals to DC signals. Now let's look at the light emitting diode. In normal diodes, when electrons combines with holes, heat is produced. With some material when electrons combine with holes, photons of light are emitted. Ends are generally used as indicators. Though they have the same rbalities as a regular diode, but instead of dissibating heat, they are dissibating light. This is a simple circuit that can light a lid. Build a retertd circuit on the Brutobard. The longer lead is the anode. In the diode, you will see two leads, a long one and a short one. The lung is the positive end, the short is the negative, the reverse, the lid, and observe what has. Now, you need to reverse that lid and observe what will happen. You'll know that one turn on. The current limiting resistor not only limits the current but also controls lid brightness. So if we blaze let's say 1,000 resistor, the light will be dimmed. If we blaze 100 m resistor, the light the red will be brighter. Next, we will look at Zenar diode. Okay, this is the symbol of the Zenar diode. The Zeno diode is designed through abrobriate dubing so that it can conduct at a britermined reverse voltage. So the difference between it and normal diode is that it does operate in the reverse direction. The diode begins to conduct and then maintains that brittermine voltage. The over voltage and assoated current must be dissipated by the diode as heat. Zeno did is constructed so that it will conduct when reversed bias above certain voltage. The excess voltage and current then is conducted to ground and the energy is dissipated as heat. A Zenar acts as a simple voltage regulator. In the case, nine volt source, as you can see here, is based through current limiting resistor to drop the voltage somewhat to take the brusher of the Zener. If the Zenar was not in blaze, the amount of voltage drop across the resistor would depend on the amount of current being down from the circuit. With the Zenar in place, the 4.7 volt would be maintained by the Zenar acting as a bath for the excess current that is not being drawn off. This excess current has to be disibtd as heat. Therefore, there are current limits on Zenars that the designer need to consider. That's it for diodes. Next, we'll discuss transistors in more details. Thanks for watching This Education Engineering Team. 26. 28 Practical 1 How to test a Diode: Hello, and welcome to this new lasson in which I will explain to you how to measure a diode and check if it's working or not. This can be done using this digital multimeter. Just choose the diode as you can see. Here we have a diode, move to the diode and move the red to the diode, as you can see, I already placed it in the diode measuring and the common to the black wire, read to the diode measuring, and turn on this display. Now, this is the diode. As you can see, usually, this silver line is the negative in, so I will connect it to the common and the black end is the positive. As you can see, it's measuring five or 600, 599. If I reverse it, so if I blaze the black on the positive end and the silver line on the positive, as you can see, it's not measuring. So this is the reverse bias, so it's not giving me a value while in foword bias, where I blaze the negative on the black and the positive on the red, it will give read. If it gives reading on both ways, this means that this is a faulty diode or as you can see here. This one is working because it's measuring only on the forward bias. Forward means that this line, silver line. This is negative, so I connect to the negative common brb of this digital timear and the positive is connected to the positive, so it's giving me a reading and forward bias. While if I reverse the connection, 27. 29 Practical 2 How to test a Diode: While if I reverse the connection, the black to the positive and the negative to the positive brbe, it will give me no readings. So the reverse bias, it's not giving any readings. This means that this diode is working efficiently and there is no problem with it. That's it. Again, you need to know that the silver line means this is the negative or the cathode, and the other end is the node. So Anode is connected to the positive brbe and cathode is connected to the negative brbe and it will give me reading. If I reverse it, this is the forward connection. If I reverse it, it will be reversed connection, so it won't give reading. If it gave reading, this means that it's not working. And to replace it, you need to take the number, as you can see. Here we can see it's written 1n40 07. So you must replace it with the very same one, as you can see. Because different dials are used for different voltage, so you need to make sure that you choose the right one. Again, if it's spinned out or blown, you must go back to the sheet to replace it with another one. Otherwise, you have to guess it. If you guess, you have to take the risk, and you might explode your entire circuit if you placed a wrong died. So try not to guess it unless you are very desperate. Thanks for watching. This is Education and Engineering Team. If you have any question, these ask in the Q and A board. 28. 30 Introduction to Transistors: The transistor. Today we will discuss transistor and how they work and inside look. Then we'll talk about basic types and BN and B and B. Then we will see basic transistor circuits, switch and amplifier. This is the transistor symbol, as you can see here, and this is the internal structure of the transistor. It consists of collector base emitter, collector base emitter, two diodes. Though you cannot make a transistor simply by putting two dies together back to back, it is useful to look at the transistor as made up of diodes to better understand what is happening inside. Now let's see this symbol transistor registration. Take a look at this representation of the inner working of a BNB transistor. Close inspection reveals that there are two diodes with their B balls connected together. This is the B ball. The Band junction is represented by the narrow black line. In an actual transistor, the B material would really be just a very narrow strip of material, not as represented in this graphic, but this is for making things easier to understand. In this circuit, the bar source is applied between the base and the emitter. As you can see here, this is the base, and this is the emeter. The positive volt to the base is negative to the emitter and additional bar source is applied between the collector and the base. The negative volt to the base, the positive volt, the collector, the base emitter diode is for rod bias, which remember cause the diode to conduct electrons allowing the electrons to move left to right, and the holes right to lift. Now, as you can see, something interesting happens in this case through the transistor effect. As the electrons from the base emetal did go across the B and junction, the B layer is so thin and there are so few holes to accept the electrons that the electrons continue to flow right. And cause the base collector diode to start conducting and allowing the current to bust through the transistor to the collector. In effect, a small forward bias on the base emitter diode cause the transistor to turn on and bass current through the emitter to collector junction. So basically, you can either forward or reverse bias a transistor by controlling its base voltage. You need to forward bias, one of the junction to allow it to flow. We will see this in more detail once we go next in the switch and amplifier circuits. This is the same circuit, but in reverse bias manner, this space is connected to the negative ball, as you can see here. So positive negative will increase these two areas, isolating areas. So no conducting is here. While in the briefest example, Well, in the previous example, as you can see here, bostive and Bostive is connected to this positive terminal. So it's forward bias, and positive holes will go there and there connected with electrons. So this area will be reduced this insulating area, and it will conduct while in the second case, the negative and bostivell negative will attract the bostive holes, which will make this area wider and will allow electrons to buzz. Now, if you look at that transistor, there are two basic types transistor bending of the arrangement of the material, B and B and NBN, as you can see here. As easy phrase to help remember the appropriate symbol is to look at the arrow, B and B pointing in Bodley and B not pointing in N B pointing and N B and B, pointing in Bodley. So this will help you remember the arrow direction and identify the transistor depending on that arrow. The only operational difference is the source bolarty NBN, not Bunting in, B and B bounting in broadly. Now, if you looked here, the transistor switch during the next two activities, you will build a transistor switch and a transistor amplifier. The bein out of the 2n39 04 transistor is indicated here, as you can see, you must purchase it or you can simulate it using Brotas, the transistors as a switch. Build a circuit, as you can see the circuit. Use hookup wire to serve as switches to connect the current to the transistor base here. What happens when you first apply bower when the base is left floating, not connected. Now, as you can see here, we have a lid, 300 m resistor, 330 m resistor in the collector to limit the current flowing through the lid. Remember, when the transistor begins to conduct the bath through the transistors very low resistance, without the current limiting resistor, too much current will damage the component. Additionally, the 1,000 um resistor in the base circuit also limits current. In this case, when the base emitter diode conducts, there is a low resistance path. Without current limiting, the transistor can be damaged. When the circuit is completed, nothing should happen because the base emitter diode of the transistor is not biased, so the transistor does not conduct. Now, when the base is connected to the nine volt, the base emital diode is for biased and conduct. This in turn turns on the transistor and current flows through the lead to turn it on. You should know that the lead goes off when the base voltage is removed. Now, if we look at and replace the hookup wire connection with a connection to a 1.5 volt battery as shown. What happens when plus 1.5 volt is applied to the base? What happened when the battery is reversed and 1.5 volt is applied to the base. Examine this on your Blotto board or test bench, then get back to this video to see the result. When the voltage positive on the base, the transistor conducts and the lid is lit. They are controlling a much larger voltage with a small voltage. This is the base. This is the goal from this circuit to show you that we can control using a transistor, we can control a high volt output using a small volt in the transistor base. This will become more important in the following circuit when a transistor amplifier is explored. But for now, you need to understand that we can use small volt on the base to control high voltage output. Okay. Now, let's see this circuit. The voltage across the variable resistor is the battery voltage. The ibre of the variable resistor tabs of the resistor at different places depending on how the screw control on the variable resistor set. The variable resistor become a voltage divider so that the voltage on the base can range from ground, no voltage to none volt and all volt in between. When the circuit is wired, you can adjust the range until the lid is fully lit using the volt o meter me voltage of the base of the transistor and record the value. On the tiest bid, the voltage was 0.78 volt. So this is the amount of volt that is required so that the lid can fully lit. Next, you can or decrease the voltage by adjusting the variable resistor until the lead is just barely visible. And again, measure the base voltage. Tist bid, the voltage was 0.68 volt. Finally, move the variable resistor until the lid is fully off and record the voltage. On the tist bid, the voltage was 0.63 volt. As you can see, depending on different value of the base voltage. We can examine different behavior of the lid. 29. 31 Practical 1 How to test a transistor: Hello, and welcome to this ulason inch I'll explain to you how you can easily test a transistor. So first, let me explain this in theory. Basically, a transistor has three terminals a base, a colector and meter. And we have two types of transistors, B and B and BN. You need to concentrate on data in the middle here, the N and the B. Okay. Let me just focus on this area. Now, first thing you need to know before testing a transistor to know it's terminal, I don't know if it's working or not is to identify the base. So the base can easily be identified if you use the digital multimeter on the diode reading, you know, because basically a transistor consists of two diodes and the two terminals that won't give a reading both ways are the collector and emitter. This means that the first thing that we are able to identify is the base. So if we found two terminals that give no readings, you can easily know that these terminals are the collector and emitter. The base is that terminal that you used and that these two didn't give a reading. So we identify the base. Now, after identification of the base, you need to know if this is a B and B or Bn. This can be done by simply testing the base using the positive terminal of the digital multimeter, and try to get a measurement out of these two. If the base gave a reading when it's connected to the positive terminal, this means that the transistor is bn because it's positive in the middle. While if you connected the negative terminal of the digital multimeter, and it gave a reading with these two terminal, this means that this transistor is B and B. The last step here is to identify the Collector and emitter. The emitter is the terminal that gives a higher reading than the colector when connected to the base. So if we connected these two, the base and the emitter, it should give us a higher reading than when we connect these two terminal. Now I will do this in practice, so you don't have to worry about anything. If you didn't understand my explanation now, it will become clear when we do this in practice. But the main thing this Sami is first, identify the base by finding the two terminals that gives no readings together both ways. So you put the positive terminal of the digital imeter here and the negative here, to give no reading. You reverse these two terminals, the positive here and the negative here, it will give no reading. So basically, you identify the base, which is the third terminal. The next step will be identifying if it's BNB or NBN by knowing the base voltage is positive or negative. Third step will be identifying the collector and the meter, the one that will measure. Or will give a high reading with the base will be the emitter. The other one is the collector. In the next lesson, I will show you this in practice. So stay tuned. Thanks for watching this lesson. If you have any questions, please ask in the Q and A board. Happy earning. 30. 32 Practical 2 How to test a transistor: Hello, and welcome to this new lison which I will show you how to test a transistor and how to identify its terminals. This is a transistor, as you can see here, it has three terminals, and we will test it out and see if it's working or not and identify its terminals. As I mentioned earlier, this is basically a diode, so you have to choose the diode reading from here on the watch on the digital multimeter. And then you can move these terminals, the black one in the common. And red one on the one that has sorry, a diode icon, so blas it here, turn it on. Now, we said that the first step would be to identify the two terminals that won't give a reading when they are together. So if we came here, as you can see, you must concentrate on this. So the two terminals that won't give any reading both ways will be the collector and emitter. So let me test these first two, so no reading. Let me Okay, let me reverse it. T black and Okay. Now, as you can see, we have a reading on the LCD display of the digital multimeter, so these are not the two collector and emeter. Let's move on to the next two. So this one and this one, we have no reading. And again, this one and this one, we have no reading on the LCD display one means no reading. So this one and this one are the collector and emeter. So this one is the base. This is the first step. So let's draw. Let's draw it here. Okay. Let me just focus on this area. So we have the base identified. Now we need to know if this base or if this transistor is BNB or BN. What we need to do is simply first knowing that the base will give measurement with both collector and emitter. So if we connect the positive terminal to the base, and if it gave reading with these two terminals, it means that positive means NBN, it will be an NBN transistor. If it didn't give a reading, we have to reverse it. We have to connect the negative bin here to the base. And if it gave a reading, this means that the base is negative or N, which means that this is a B and B transistor. So let's start this is the positive terminal connected to the base and it is connected to this terminal. It gave a reading on the LCD, as you can see here. If you connect it to the other bend, it also gave a reading. So this is the base. It's connected with the dbbe. This means that it's NBN transistor. So NBN transistor. This is the type of transistor. Now to the final step, which is identifying the collector and emitter between these two bands. Now, as I mentioned earlier, the one that will give higher measurement when connected to the base will be the emitter. So let's connect the positive terminal to the base. Let's connect this to this pin. It gave us 675. Let's connect to this pin, 689. So this one has a higher reading, which is the this terminal. As I mentioned earlier, the one that will give higher reading with the base will be the emitter. So now we have this as the emitter and the last one is the collector. So this is our transistor. It's fully functional. It's working, and we did found out that it's 31. 33 Practical 3 How to test a transistor: So this is our transistor. It's ban tribe. And to summarize things, first, identify the base by testing. Collector and the meter. As I mentioned earlier, we can identify the base by testing the two terminals that gives no reading when connected with the two brbes of the digital multimeter. As we did earlier, these were the two terminals that gave no reading. So the third bin will be the base. Now, after identifying the base, we need to identify type, identify type BN or BnB. Depending on the latter in the middle. If we connected the red brbe to the base, and it gave reading with the C and E, so it's ABN. If we connected the negative or the black brbe to the base, and it gave reading with the collector and emitter, it's B and B. The one that we have here gave reading when we connected the redbbe to the base and the black brbe to the collector and emitter, I gave reading, so it's and B and type. The third and final step would be test base emitter, base to collector. This should give higher reading. On digital multimeter. So the one with the higher reading is basically the emitter, and this is, this is what we have what we did here, it's the emitter. This terminal, it gave us like 689, and this gave us 675. So it's a very slight very small difference, but it's there. So this one is the emitter and this one is the collector, as we mentioned here, base collector emitter. So that's it. This is how to test out a transistor using a digital multimeter. If you have any question, please ask in the Kane board. I'm here to help you. This is Education and Engineering Team. Thanks for watching.