English History Box Set: Understand British History from Stonehenge to the Cold War

1. Introduction: Hello, Welcome to the English history books at course, and I hope you're excited to start learning. We're going to cover some really interesting topics in this course. Some of the information is in the course videos, but there's also at the end of each section an article that contains links to books, written articles, videos, some really quite funny videos relating to each section of the course. I hope that you'll check out those resources. You can choose to do the course from beginning to end. Or you can just jump in to the parts of the course that most interest you. We're going to cover the Neolithic period and Stonehenge, the Roman occupation of Britain, the Anglo-Saxon period, the Norman conquest, the pump Taj events including the Wars of the Roses, the final content units including Richard the Third, the tutors, the Stuart's, the Hanover, the Victorian era, the First World War, the Second World War, the Cold War. The course begins at about 8 thousand BC at the ends in 1990 day. So there is a lot to cover at the course lasts about 32.5. Ours. I hope you're really looking forward to getting started. I would say, about the sources for this course. History is about human stories and everybody has their own slumps and take on human stories. Not all sources that are out there are accurate. I have quoted Wikipedia a couple of times. It's actually not considered a totally reliable source in academic terms, although it's a great place for fact-finding and it's kind of fun to read. But if you're reading a Wikipedia article, I would recommend checking the texts that are cited in the notes of that article. There is some information and the very last section of the course and the article about hard to identify a reliable historical source. The course where there's more than one opinion on a certain topic. I have standards, the different opinions, and I count out having opinions of my own, but I have said this is just my opinion. On occasions. The course covers some topics such as colonialism, the economy, and religious divides in the history of England. And everybody doing this course will be from a different background. When you're commenting and the Q&A when you're asking questions, when you're engaging with the course, I would ask you to be a little bit respectful that some of the topics that we're talking about could be a little bit sensitive. So without further ado, let's start the course. 2. Stonehenge : Before we talk about English history and British history, Let's talk a little bit about British pre-history. In this video, we're going to talk a byte, a site that still fascinates people around the world. Stonehenge. Just before we get into the video, there's some terms that are going to be repeated throughout this video. And it's possibly good to give a little explanation of those before we start. Neolithic means relating to the later part of the stone inch, the first of the three phases of pre-history, which are the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. Megalithic means relating to prehistoric monuments containing large stones. So obviously, Stonehenge fits that bill. Saw Carson's are sounds stone boulders originating from the chalk dawns of southern England. Blue stones are smaller stones made of dolerite at Stonehenge, and dolerite as a dark medium grand igneous rock. That means it's a volcanic rock. Trilithons means two standing stones with a lentil across the top. Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument on solves re-plan and wheelchair. And it's actually 500 to a thousand years older than the pyramids in Egypt. It consists of an outer ring of vertical sarsen or standing stones. Bike 13 feet high and weighing around 25 tons. These are taught by horizontal lintel stones. Inside as a ring of smaller blue stones. Inside are freestanding trilithons sets are too radical. Sarsen stones with a lintel stone across the top. The whole structure aligns towards the sunrise on the day of the summer solstice. The stones are set at a complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments, including several 100 to me lie or burial grinds. Archaeologists did the construction of Stonehenge is having taken place between three thousand and two thousand BC. Stonehenge has been legally protected by the scheduled ancient monument Act since 1882, and it has been a unesco World Heritage site since 1986. It's very much worth visiting, but as a former resident of wheelchair, I have to say here, you can't get very close to the stones because of erosion, because people had kind of been abusing them, scraping bits off them. But if you go to if Bree, which is also in wheelchair there, you can get closer to astounding stone circle. At the moment, Stonehenge is owned by the crime and managed by English heritage. It's actually been on private land for a lot of the past few centuries. The surrounding land is owned by the National Trust. Otherwise its original use, it really certain that may have been a barrier grind and its earliest days, deposits containing human bones dating from his early as 3 thousand BC. I've been fine too there. And there's evidence that the depositing of romance continued for at least 500 years at Stonehenge, Africa's tenth century glossary uses the trend hanger cliff, two main precipice or stone, hence the standard hangers or hanging stones down hang recorded by 11th century writers could be described as hanging stones today or stones hanging in the air. The term hands, as used by archaeologists to describe earthworks consisting of a circular bonked enclosure with a ditch within the structure. Stonehenge as distinct from other handlers and that it is more than 24 feet tall, including the lentils. It uses more TAs and talent joints, which are joints which connect two pieces of wood or other materials. And it has extent lentils, which we don't say on other standing stone circles. So it's quite unique. What will stone hands use for and who was it used by? Well, the answer is pretty much where, not entirely sure, but we have some ideas. The community who built unused don't hinge left no written records on its purpose is open to debate. Many myths and legends have flourished over the centuries of bytes Stonehenge. The key elements of the site, the grid trilithons, the two standing stones with a lentil, the horseshoe trilithons and the unbanked Avenue are aligned to the sunset on the winter solstice and the sunrise on the summer solstice. Natural land form at the location of Stonehenge on Salisbury plan follows this line, may have inspired the construction of the monument. The excavated remains of animal bone suggests people may have gathered there for winter rather than for the summer. The astronomical use of the site has been a source of speculation on the bit over the years. The site is most widely believed to have been an astronomical and religious site. To measure new theories regarding its use have emerged recently, Jeffrey, when President of the Society of antiquities in London and Thomas developed, born with university, have suggested was used as a healing site almost like a prehistoric equivalent of alerts. And that's quite interesting because there was a period where Stonehenge walls thought of as a site of human sacrifice and sort of dark goings on. Hence, one of those stones that's fallen over was called the Slaughter Stone, for example. But when write on, Darwin argued that the number of animals buried there and the evidence of trauma deformity and some individuals buried there lends itself to the explanation that it was a center of hailing. They do add that the site was probably multifunctional and used for the worship of ancestors as well. Isotope analysis suggests that some of the individuals buried there where from other regions. A teenage boy who was buried there around 1550 BC was found to be from near the Mediterranean, for example, the so-called Ames Barry Archer, a metal record from around 3,300 BC came from the Alpine foothills of Germany. The bus come Bowman also buried quite near Stonehenge, came from Wales or Brittany. Professor Mike Parker Pearson of Sheffield University has suggested that Stonehenge was part of a wider ritual landscape, which included Darlington walls and Neolithic settlement near Stonehenge. And that the corresponding avenues of Stonehenge and Barrington Wolff led to the River Avon creating a huge ritual landscape site, not just the hedge being used for rituals. He used during two walls as the land of the living stone hand, just a land of the dead. Thus a journey along the Avon from Darlington walls to Stonehenge represented a journey from life to death to commemorate ancestors or celebrate the recently deceased. The 12th century writer Geoffrey of Monmouth included both these theories and his writings. He described the healing part of the stones and also alluded to Stonehenge as a funerary monument. The designers Stonehenge includes us less steel. Observe a tray which might've helped to predict eclipses, solstices, the equinox, and other events which would've been significant to the religion of the community and to their day-to-day lives. The Neolithic people were undergoing a time of cultural unification. So Parker Pearson see Stonehenge a symbolizing peace and unity. And it has been associated in myths and popular culture with human sacrifice on bloodshed. And so this is a very different way of thinking. Stonehenge megaliths include blue stones and Parsons. Igneous blue stones seemed to have come from the Presley hills and southwest Wales. The Saxons came from the westwards a byte 16 miles away from Stonehenge. Searchers from the Royal College of Art recorded the blue stones have unusual acoustic qualities and make a light clogging noise when struck. Rocks with similar properties are found at the Karen Mellon rich and precisely there, which they were used as church bells until the 18th century. And that's part of the reason that we think that the blue stones came from that part of Wales. And this might explain why ways stones were hauled such a long way, about a 150 miles on that was a major fates at the time that Stonehenge was constructed. Certain ancient cultures venerated litho phonic rocks are rocks that ring light as having healing parts or other mystical pars. Their presence supports the theory that Stonehenge was a place of healing. The Belle Baker people who were early Bronze staged people named after that bell-shaped drinking vessels arrived in Iran 2500 BC from continental Europe. The earliest speaker settlers were similar to those from the Rhine. Again, there was a large-scale population replacement. The bell bakers had an impact on Stonehenge and on West x culture, the predominant prehistoric culture of Central and Southern Britain. There were wide ranging trade links in this period, especially with my CNN grace. The wealth from this trade may have enabled the West sex people to undertake the second, third phases of Stonehenge is construction, the most ambitious phases of its construction. It also suggests a high degree of social organization. The bell bakers were associated with the tin trade. Britain's only unique export at that time. And ten was important and turning copper and bronze and the tray admit the bakers affluent stonehenge and folklore and legend. The Heel Stone is a megaliths northeast of the sarsen circles near the end of the Stonehenge Avenue. It's 16 feet above the ground. And at the summer solstice, someone looking from northeast from the stone circle would see the sunrise and the direction of the hill stone. And it's often photographed with the sun above it. You can see a photograph of it to the right. The folk tale attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth, the author of the fantastical Historia Rechnung retaliate history of the kings of England goes something like this. The devil bought the stones from a woman and Ireland, wrap them up and brought them to salt spray plan, what are the stones fell into the Avon and the rest were carried to the plan. The devil then cried out, no one will ever find out highly stones came here. A friar replied, That's what you think, where upon the devil 31 of the stones autumn and struck him on the hill, the stone stuck and the grind and is still there. Hence it's called the Heel Stone. The historian I rec number tiny, I tells a tale in which Merlin, the famous wizard, brings the stones to Stonehenge from Ireland using magic. This story spread as part of the mid and late medieval fashion for Arthurian legend. The tail goes something like this. The stones that Stonehenge we're healing stones brought from Africa to Ireland. They have been raised on mine killer AS to form a stone circle called the giants ring or the giants rind King Aurelius ambrosia wanted to build a memorial to Caltech nobles kills at salts break by the Saxons. He sent Merlin and Arthur Penn dragon, the father of King Arthur, to Ireland, will 15 thousand men to bring the giants rank back to salt spray. They defeated an Irish army, but they couldn't move the huge stones. The wizard Merlin supplied supernatural aids on the stones, were transported to solve re-plan, where they were arranged as they had been when they were in Ireland. Mike Parker Pearson points out that the blue stones come from the Walmart stone circle on the RFC coast of whales. There's a grant of truth and the myth. Another medieval legend said that King hanging a Saxon and better invited Caltech warriors to have faced where 420 of them were slaughtered. It was sad to have both Stonehenge as a token of his remorse. During the 20th century, religious practices resumed at Stonehenge when it started being used by neo-pagan and Neo derivates, the ancient order of dreads performed a mass initiation ceremony at Stonehenge and 1905, the Stonehenge free festival celebrating the summer solstice took place there between 19721984. In 1985, wheelchair police and new edge travelers clashed and ritual use of the site became restricted. This incident is referred to as the Battle of Bain failed. The police were enforcing a high court injunction to stop the free festival that become associated with violence on the part of biker grapes, several new edge travelers were awarded damages for injuries and false imprisonment by the police. The use of the monument for religious reasons was suppressed and an exclusion zone put in place for 15 years. Visitors could not enter the circle on significant religious debts, such as the summer and winter solstices on the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. The European Court of Human Rights put an end to this following a campaign by Neo Druet, Arthur, Arthur Penn, dragon, and others, the court found that the members of religious organizations hover right to access important places of worship. That Stonehenge walls and important place of worship. 7 thousand people attended the open-air summer solstice event and the ear teeth, thighs. And by 2001 this had increased to 10 thousand people. The stones are roped off to visitors and that's been the case since 1977 due to serious erosion. Visitors come up, touch the stones, but can walk around the monument. Access is permitted during religious festivals, during the solstices and equinoxes. And so that's the only way to get close to the stones at Stonehenge currently. The early history of Stonehenge. Archaeologist Mike Parker Pearson, who specializes in Neolithic archaeology, states that Stonehenge was a place of burial from its beginning to its zenith and the mid third millennium BC. The Commission burial dating to Stonehenge is sarsen stones phase is likely just one of many from the later period of the monuments use and demonstrates that it was still very much at the man of the dead. There's evidence of several construction phases that Stonehenge spawning 1500 years. Understanding the process of the construction of the site has been complicated by disturbance of the natural chalk, by the effects of the thawing of snow and ice over time, as well as animal burrowing, lack of scientifically verified debts. I'm per records of early excavations. Current thinking about the construction of purpose of Stonehenge may change over time. Phases of construction before the monuments from a by its size and BC, archaeologists find five large Mesolithic, which is even earlier than Neolithic post holes, dating to around 500 BC. And the old car park that was in use until 20131 of these may have been made by a tree. These ones held pine posts around 2.5 feet in diameter, which eventually rotted. Three or possibly four of these posts were arranged east to west, which may have had significance and a ritual. There may have been a settlement connected with the posts that made use of the nearby stream of bleak made. The site was reminiscent to the Mesolithic site of Warren failed and Aberdeen, scotland and sites and Scandinavia, which served as lunar calendars were the winter solstice sacrifice was offered. Salzburg plan would have been worded at the time these posts were erected, but for a thousand years later and the early Neolithic period. And enclosure with a causeway was built at robin hoods ball, 2.5 miles from Stonehenge. Long barrow tombs were also built. A Stonehenge cursors, which is a long narrow enclosure monument, was built in around 3,500 BC. At that time, the first farmers there began to clear the trace. Charcoal from the Black made camp has been dead for thighs and BC. The University of Buckingham's Humanities Research Institute found that the community who built Stonehenge, we're residents in the area for millennia. Dna research showed that the ancestors of the Stonehenge builders were farmers from the Eastern Mediterranean. They seem to have had an Asian ancestry and that is great from a ride, they are G and C, although they're farming methods originated in Anatolia or Asia Minor. These are Jan, farmers are thought to have reached Britain in 4 thousand BC. They may have introduced a tradition of building monuments using large megaliths. Stonehenge could have been part of that tradition. At that time, Britain was inhabited by western hunter-gatherers. Dna studies show that these two groups didn't mix and stat there was a population displacement, Stonehenge construction phase one, and that was around 3,100 BC. The first monument on the site consisted of a secular bank and ditch enclosure made of Santonian edge C for chalk. It was about 360 feet in diameter on how to large entrance to the Northeast with a smaller one to the site. The terrain it was built on was grassy and slightly sloping. There is evidence that the builders plays the bones of Deir on the auxin, on flint tools and to the ditch. The bones were much older than the antler picks presumably used to dig the ditch. And they have been cared for by the builders for some time before they were buried at the site. So they were precious artifacts. The Dutch have been dug and sections, as was the case with other ditches in the area, chalk dust from the Dutch was piled up to form the bank. This occurred around 3,100 BC. And after that, the ditch filled up with self naturally. On the outer edge of the enclosed area as the circle of 56 pits, age 3.3 feet in diameter, known as the Aubrey holes, after John Aubrey, who is thought to have identified them in the 17th century. The pit spank and ditch together are known as the policy or the get ditch. It is thought that the pits may have content standing timbers, but there's no hard evidence of this. Recent excavations suggests that pits may have been used to erect a bluestone circle. This would predict the earliest known stone structure of the site by 500 years. In 2013, a team of archaeologists led by Mike Parker Pearson, for more than 50 thousand commit a bone fragments from 63 people buried at Stonehenge. These remains had been buried individually and the Aubrey Holes find by William Holly and 1920s, he had reentered them and one whole Aubrey Holes 71935, testing at the committed remains showed that they were a mix of men and women with some children as well. There was evidence of the underlying chalk beneath the graves having been crushed by a heavy width. And so the team concluded that the first blue stones brought from Wales where grave markers, radiocarbon data and concluded the site was established and three thighs and be say, 500 years earlier than had previously been thought. That 2018 study of the strontium content of the bones suggested that these individuals had come from near the source of the blue stones and Wales, rather than having lived near Stonehenge. Professor Parker Pearson carried out studies between 20172021 that suggested that the blue stones and use at Stonehenge had been taken there after an earlier stone circle at 11 and the priscilla hills and Wales was dismantled. This was ascertain due to the distinctive pentagonal shape of one particular stone. Bioluminescence soil dating from the sockets which showed the psycho had been erected around three thousand, four hundred and three thousand, two hundred BC and dismantle three hundred, four hundred years later, consistent with the debts of the construction of Stonehenge. There was a cessation of human activity and the area at the time, which suggests there was a migration. Other stones may have come from different sources. Stonehenge building phase to around 2900 BC. The second phase of construction that Stonehenge took place sometime between two thousand, nine hundred and two thousand six hundred BC. There are a number of post holes that suggests that a timber structure was erected within the enclosure during this period. Stamping timbers have been placed at the northeast entrance, a parallel alignment of posts around Edwards from the Southern entrance. The post holes are only 16 inches in diameter, much smaller than the Aubrey holes, and less regularly spaced. The bank was intentionally reduced in height and the ditch continue to silt up. Around 25 of the Aubrey Holes contained letter and trace it. Permission barriers dating to the two centuries after the monuments, original construction, whatever the original use of the Aubrey holes by this stage in the use of the monument, they definitely had a funerary function. 30 further commissions have been placed in the ditch and, and other places, mostly in the Eastern half of the monument. This makes Stonehenge the earliest known commission Symmetry and Britain fragments of unburned human bone we're also find on the ditch. Later Neolithic portray, find and connection with the features from this phase, help with dating the remains. Stonehenge building phase three-part one, around 2600 base, say, at this time the builders started to use stone rather than timber. And two concentric sets of holes were built in the center of the site. The q and r holes, they stone Sockets look a bit like crescents, but could be the remains of a double ring. There's little solid data and evidence from this phase. These holes held up to 80 standing stones, but only 43 can be traced today, it's generally accepted that the blue stones, some of which are made of dolerite, were transported to the site from the Presley hills are 150 miles away and modern-day Pembrokeshire and Wales. Another theory is that they were conveyed to the site by glacial erotics. In other words, the formation of melting of glaciers from the RFC glass here. There's no clear evidence of glacial deposition and Southern Central England. 2019 study analyzed evidence of megalithic querying and Wales, which was identified as the source for the blue stones at Stonehenge, stating that the stones were quarried by humans rather than being carried by glacial action. In 2011, the long distance transport theory was reinforced by the discovery of a megalithic bluestone query at choreography felon and Pembrokeshire, which was felt was the most likely source of the blue stones. But how could such heavy stones have been moved such a distance h stone ways to tons. This could have been lifted and carried on rows of pools on rectangular framework. Suppose a method known to have been used in China, Japan, and MDS, they're sort of rolled along these pools with the stones on top of them. They may have been taken directly from the query or from the dismantling of a stone circle oppressively to merge two sacred centers into one, to unify to politically separate regions, or to legitimize the ancestral identity of migrants moving from one region to another. And that's according to Mike Parker Pearson. Each monolith is 6.6 feet high, 3.3 to 4.9 feet wide and 2.6 feet thick. The so-called Altar Stone or recumbent model that's dating from around 2600 BC, almost certainly comes from the sandy beds, 50 miles east of the Presley hills and the brick and beacons, the north eastern entrance was widened in this period. This met that it precisely matched the direction of the midsummer sunrise at midwinter sunset of the periods. And that's according to Wikipedia, this phase of the monument was abandoned before it could be completed. Either the small standing stones were removed and the q and r holes filled in. The hail stone, a single large sarsen which sounds and the avenue outside the north-eastern entrance may have been placed there. And this period, it cannot be accurately data that may have been put there at anytime during Phase three. It was originally paired with a second stone, which is no longer there. Two or possibly three portal stones were set up just inside the north eastern entrance. But only the Slaughter Stone which has fallen over romance. It's 16 foot long. The forest station stones are roughly debtor to phase three. They stand the top minds are borrows which do not contain barriers. Borrows normally do contain barriers, which is why I say that Stonehenge Avenue was also added in this period. It's a parallel pair of ditches and banks running for two miles to the River Avon. Stonehenge building fence, three-part to 2600 BC to 2400 BC. During this phase, 30 huge sarsen stones were brought to the site. They came from a query 16 miles away and westwards wheelchair. The stones were dressed and settled with more TAs and tenon joints, which you can see picture below. Before 30 were erected into a stone circle, a 100 net foot and diameter, and 30 lintel stones were resting on top. The lentils were connected together using tongue and groove joints. Each standing stone was around 13 feet high and 6.9 feet wide and weighed 25 tons. The lentil stones curved slightly to maintain the appearance of the earlier monument. The inner surfaces of the stones are smoother and more finally worked than the ICTR sides. The circle would have been mid of 75 stones. It was once thought that the ring may have been left and complete. But after a hot summer in 2013, patches of parched grass came to view, which may have been the locations of sarsen which were removed. The lintel stones are ten feet long, three-point, three feet wide and 2.6 feet deep. The tops of the lentils are 16 feet above the ground. Within the circle there were five trilithons, sets of two standing stones with a lentil across the top. These were arranged in a horseshoe shape, 45 feet across, with the open-end facing northeast. These massive stones weigh 50 tons age, they were linked by complex join array. The smallest pair as 20 foot tall and the largest one is 24 foot tall. Only want stone from the grit trilithons is still standing. You can say 22 fit of it from above the ground on another 7.9 fate as below the grind. One of the lessons, stone 53 is carved with images of a dagger and 14 axe heads. Stones 345 also have ax heads carved on their outer surfaces. The carvings have proven difficult to debt, but the images are similar to Bronze Age weapons. 21st century laser scanning supports this theory. The debt of this phase of building has been radiocarbon dated to between two thousand, six hundred and two thousand four hundred BC. This makes this phase of building slightly earlier than the time of the so-called Stonehenge. Aren't sure the remains of Bronze Age mom finds and the either ditch of the monument in 1970 it to similar barriers were fined three miles to the west, known as the am spray Archer on the boss can Bowman, Mike Parker Pearson's examination of animal tape suggests that there was a camp nearby, but at some point between two thousand, six hundred and two thousand, four hundred BC, up to 4 thousand people gathered for mid-winter and mid-summer festivals at the site. Evidence suggested that the animals they are having slaughtered around nine months after their births and the spring somehow being brought from as far as the Scottish Highlands for the celebration, according to strontium analysis carried out on the animal teeth. Around this time, a timber circle on a second Avenue were constructed at the Neolithic settlement of Darlington walls overlooking the river Avon. The timber circle pointed towards the rising sun on the day of the winter solstice, opposing the solar alignments of Stonehenge, which is aligned to view the rising sun at the summer solstice and the setting sun at the winter solstice, the Avenue was aligned with the setting sun on the summer solstice. Lad from the river to the timber circle, there's evidence of huge fires on the banks of the Avon between the two avenues, which suggests that they were linked. They were perhaps used as a precession rate on the longest and shortest days of the year. Parker Pearson suggests that the wind Circle walls the land of the living at Darlington walls, while the stone circle was the land of the dead with the Avon creating a journey between the two Stonehenge building fairs three-part 32400 to 2280 BC. The blue stones seemed to have been re-erected letter and the Bronze Age they replaced within the outer circle of sarsen, I may have been trend. A few blue stones have timber working cuts, suggesting they may have been linked with lentils as part of a larger structure. Stonehenge building fence three-part for 2280 BC to 1930 base a, the blue stones were again rearranged and this fairs, they were arranged to the sarco between two rings of sarsen and also an oval and the center of the inner ring. Some archaeologists believe that these blue stones were a second set brought from Wales. They stones are well spaced upright with no suggestion of missing lentils. It was not as carefully built as earlier stages of the blue stones were not well-funded and started falling over. Only minor changes were made after this phase. Stonehenge building fans, three-part 51930 BC to 1600 BC. The North Eastern section of the fears three-part for bluestone circle was removed, creating a horseshoe shaped arrangement, the bluestone horseshoe, which mirrored the ship of the horseshoe created by the central sarsen trilithons. The right-hand sided Norfolk was built around this time and a similar pattern. After the monument was built from 1600 BC. The last usage of Stonehenge was probably in the Iron Age. And the Iron Age was the third epoch of pre-history. The first two being the Stone Age, the Bronze Age. Roman coins or medieval artifacts have been fired at Stonehenge, but that doesn't suggests that was in continuous use throughout British pre-history. It's always attracted tourists. We can't be sure how it was used. Less Bayesians comp, which is actually not a Roman site, despite the name, is built alongside the Avenue near the Avon. It was a huge Iron Age hill fort. In 1923 at the capitated seventh century sex amount was excavated at Stonehenge. Scholars wrote about Stonehenge during the Middle Ages. 3. The Roman Conquest: Let's talk about high Britain became part of the greatest empire that the world has ever known, The Roman Empire. As a bit of background, we need to understand a little bit about the Julio-Claudian dynasty, they emperors of Rome or the first emperors of Rome. Now, if you're a fan of Game of Thrones, you might really enjoy reading up a little on the Julio-Claudian dynasty because there are more epic battles, political intrigue and gruesome murders and their real life history than you could ever get an, a fantasy novel. And it all began with this guy, Julius Caesar. Night at the time of the birth of Caesar, Rome walls are republic led by a Senate Julius Caesar. Walls are really important general military leader within the Roman Republic. And at 1 he became Roman console, which was unimportant political office within the Senate. He would've liked the second term, but he was blocked from enjoying that. He decided to boat his support and make himself a bit more popular. By the conquest of golf, which is modern-day France and Belgium. He took some legions site at really increased the size of the Roman Empire. Remember the Romans were all about conquest. He really overextended himself. He was appointed dictator for ten years and really wanted to be so late in charge and that met him animates within the Senate. And as we know, he was eventually assassinated. Several conspirators killed him, but one of them was the son of his lover. So Veolia bridges. And if you've read Shakespeare, you will know all about. But now the irony of Caesar's death as those who are plotted against him wanted to restore and ensure the safety of the Roman Republic. But what actually followed was the birth of the Roman Empire. So the first emperor to appear was Caesar Augustus. Not the word Caesar has come to mean a later. And of course we get words like Kaiser and Germany on the Tsar and Russia. It's a word that has come to mean a grit, political later or King. I'm actually, it comes from the Latin verb to cut, hence this caesarian section. Augustus, who was born Octavius, takes on the name Caesar almost as a Tidal. Now he didn't just succeed Julius Caesar. What happened was after Caesar's death, Julius Caesar staff, I try and brought a paired made up of Marc Antony, who had been one of Caesar's closest associates and other great military leader and Rome. Lepidus and Octavius. Obviously, you probably know that conflict arose between Mark Antony and Octavian. And Mark Antony disappeared off to Egypt to enjoy himself with his lover, Cleopatra. And it all came to a very sad. And at the Battle of Actium, after which Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. And Octavius, who later named himself, Augustus, became the unquestioned emperor on sole ruler of Rome. Augustus not so much interested in Britain, but an important part of the story. Nonetheless, he was succeeded by his wife son, Tiberius. Tiberius, again, not so much interested in Britain. He was a less effective Emperor. Augustus have Bain, like most Roman emperors, he's implicated in a few nasty deaths. He possibly killed his brother's son, Germanicus, who was very popular general, that sort of thing. But Germanicus has some. Caligula succeeded Tiberius, and as we'll find out later, he was just a little bit and trusted and Britain, Caligula as mostly remembered for having Bain, well, let me think of a term mod as a box of frogs, but not in a good way and a kind of blood thirsty way. He killed friends as well as enemies. He spends an awful lot of money and he believed himself quite literally to be a god. So he annoyed a lot of people and was eventually assassinated. He was succeeded by his uncle Claudius. Claudius did not enter public alphas really until the random key, like when he was in his mid-fifties. Because he had a bit of a stricter and was considered a bit of an embarrassment to the family, but that kept him alive. He actually turned out to be a fairly effective emperor. He was a good administrator and he decided to bolster his own popularity by farther expansion on. So he was the emperor who walls rarely responsible for the invasion of Britain. And Britannia is inclusion in the Roman Empire. Claudius was succeeded by Nero, who was very interested in keeping control. And Britain. Narrow, also famous for being, well, let's be honest, a little bit nuts. He really didn't like Christians. The tails of Christians being thrown to the lions may or may not have a basis and truth, anyone who was considered to be a criminal or opposed to society could be executed in the arena. And one of the ways that they executed criminals was throwing them to lions. But we do have some historical evidence that he used Christians as human torches on the Appian Way, that he covered them in tar and set fire to them. So not a totally stable individual. That's a little potted history of the people who had been on wherein charge at the time that the Romans came to Britain. Julius Caesar, as we mentioned, did go to Britain as part of his Gallic wars. And 55 on 54 Be safe. He took two legions, which was not a lot of man. I landed in Kent, had little Nicaragua and decided not to stay basically. But then he came back, as we know a year later. And this time he took 628 ships and five legions. This time he really meant business. At the time of the Roman Republic, a Roman legion consisted of about 4,500 men, including 300 cavalry. The scourge unfair of people who weren't Roman, basically by the time of the empire, legend was iran 5,320 men. Just a little bit of information there. So the natives just could not resist force on this scale. Caesar penetrated as far as Middlesex, the British warlord cost of aloneness was forced to surrender. Boundary bread. Highest amount of branches of the trend of vanities became a client's king on behalf of room. And that effectively began the start of written history. And Breton, the Iron Age people's British tribes who lived in Britain before that relied on an oral tradition and didn't so much, right? Things dawn. So this is one of the earliest periods for which we have written alkynes. Britain than enjoyed trading links with Rome. And Rome's economic and cultural influence was widespread and the British lit, pre Roman Iron Age. The British, of course, we're not as technologically advanced as the Romans were, kind of overall to buy them. Most of Europe was part of the Roman Empire at that point. So this brings Britain sort of in line with what's happening elsewhere. Let's talk a little bit about what was happening amongst the British around the time of Julius Caesar's and vision. The four days AND the Catalan may replace the Novartis as the most powerful kingdom. And South Eastern Breton, the most powerful tribe, taking over their capital of commun laudanum, which is modern-day cool Chester. The otra bodies tribe were on Amaka, both diplomatic and economic terms with the Roman switch was a good idea. Rome recognized varicose as their king. Correct? Lucas, who became a big figure in the history of the British practical, was king of the capital alone. And he conquered the kingdom of the antibodies and expelled Veronica. Veronica was an ally of Rome, so that was not going to place room. You can actually see a coin here with a depiction of character because I'm, What's kind of interesting as he looks a bit, Roman doesn't do like the Romans thought that an alkaline knows, maybe look very dignified. We can see here that Granicus very much has an aqua line nose and there's an actual eagle on the other side of the coin which sits somewhere between 4351 AD. When as an invasion, not an envision where nets lab by this f2 Caligula. Some historians report that Caligula losing popularity because he was spending an awful lot of money and basically causing room to go bankrupt by building statues and temples to himself. But can't regular decided to expand and to breakfast. That's high. Julius Caesar had made himself more popular through conquest. So there weren't a lot of places laughed basically, for the Romans to conquer. And so he decides to go to Britain, but his soldiers refused across the channel and boats that were made for fighting rather than for taking long journeys. They thought the emperor might kill them if they didn't fight, but there were definitely going to die on the channel if they attempted to make the crossing, it looked like the regular wood fence, a mutiny. It's thought that he did this. He got some of his soldiers. He scraped them up to make them look like the Roman public. Imagined a British person would look sort of unkempt, dark day, you know, uneducated. And he paraded them through Rome to pretend he had been to Britain. We don't know at this story is true or not. Let's remember that the historians riding a bike, can I give up? Basically didn't like him very much. It was not a popular figure. Colombia has failed expedition dead leave something useful for Claudius's expedition, however, and that he had built a lighthouse, banana, which is blowing Sulla. And modern day terms. Claudius used that lighthouse unreplicated at Andover and it actually became a part of the eventual real invasion of Britain. Okay, So this is Claudius and he was serious a byte and banning Britain. The Roman conquest of Britain under Claudius began and 43 a day. He invaded on the pretext of re-install in America, who of course was a Roman ally. This conquest was largely completed by Andy seven days, so it took about 43 years. This was not a quick thing. Auto when the stand get was completed, the Stan Getz was an important Roman roads linking to strategic force that regarding river crossings, remember river crossings where, where people could transport goods, they were where your enemies could sail up and attack you. We're important geographically. These forks guarded crossings at course tapetum, Light known as core breads and looky Valium, modern day Carlisle. The Roman soldiers came from Italia, Hispania and Gaul. Athletes or the Spanish Iberian Peninsula really aren't sort of France. So they would have been quite shocked by Britain. We know that many of them can plans that I find it very, very cold. The locals on a very different culture than they were used to. They have never been to a place like this. Invade Britain, the classes Bertani I was formed and that was a naval fleet made up of Mediterranean war galleys. Other, they weren't just for fighting, they use thicker woods, the most Roman warships on, so they were more stable and rough waters. Claudius had possibly learned from what had happened to colliculi, where the army basically sad, you're not getting us into that water. And those ships, the urban forest cross and three divisions under general wireless Plautus, who's pictured here. They're most likely read to them. We're not entirely sure what route they took, but the most likely route was from Bolonia or loin to rich bre and can't. British resistance was led by the sun's corona Berlin of the Catalan, a taco dampness on the famous character ruckus. On the Romans were led by General Alice. This, as we mentioned, who wants several major battles against the Britons on those included the Battle of Midway and Kent and 43 a day, the Battle of care Kara doc against character focus and 50 ID on the battle of Mona and angle C and Wales, which happened in either 60 or 61 AD. The Battle of Midway took place near Rochester, and it lasted for two entire days. Very important figure, Santa Ynez, ah, city as data was nearly captured, but he managed to turn the bottle around and he was actually awarded a Roman triumph. Mike. A Roman triumph was when a Roman military leader got to parade their captives on their slaves that they had conquered through the streets of Rome to grit applause. Whilst the per capita would probably be pelted with all kinds of nasty things. But it was pretty much the biggest honor that you could have if you were a military leader that made you a bit of a public hero and Rome target Douglass died following one of the battles with Clausius on the British swore to avenge him supply. Diaz was actually more shaken than you would've thought by this uncalled for the support of Emperor Claudius, who arrived accompanied by the Praetorian Guard who had met him emperor. After the assassination of Caligula. He arrived and 43 AD, according to the arch of Claudius and Rome onto Suetonius, the historian, he received the surrender of 11 South Eastern British tribes with ICT bloodshed. And there may have been a reason for that. I'm not may have been the war elephants book called The US had brought. Now I've got my signs strange to us like why would people just give up their land based on elephants? But if you had never seen one before, it could have been pretty terrifying. They just felt they couldn't take home the might of Rome. Possibly. The Romans van, prepared to move north and west and they established a capital at commun laudanum, a coach faster than returned home on correct. Lucas who had been captured, a skipped Kogi darkness. So he was varicose air because by that stage, Baraka, their ally was very algebraic, became King of several territory's as a reward from his allies. And of course, we know that the Roman invasion and occupation of Britain was not uncontested, that there was a very famous widespread rebellion led by this lady buddha CAT, also known as Bodhisattva. And we're going to talk about that in another video. But Buddha was queen of the ice, CNI, one of the British tribes on gelato, general uprising and 60 AD. And she sat several important Roman settlements. She actually was a real thorn in the side of the Romans. But they eventually decisively put down a rebellion at the Battle of what links straight in 60 or 61 ID by when you hear the word straight. Of course, in our modern edge, we think of a road that people live on or maybe has a lot of shops. But it actually refers to a very important men, right? At this period and history in terms of communication on trading, but also of moving range or military. Here is an important member of the Roman military and Britain Vespasian, who of course would later become emperor. He was the founder of the Flavian dynasty, the dynasty that followed the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He took a force westward to subdue tribes on capture settlements. And he met exit or a base for Roman legions from 55 to 75 AD. He sent a legion north to lend them colonia non Lincoln by 47 a day. And it's likely that an area from the Humbert to the Severn estuary was under Roman control. So that really making inroads. It's line is followed by the rate of the falsey way and that's a Roman road linking expert to Lincoln. And some historians say the road as convenient frontier during the early occupation, the Roman roads, of course, were used for generations after the Romans actually left Britain. And roads on that scale or something that the locals really didn't have. The Romans were of course, famous for engineering, for road-building, for building aqueducts, creating ways of transporting people and land. Whereas before that you really needed reverse in order to transport a lot of people and a lot of goods. Let's talk a little bit about the Romans and Wales. Lived 47 a day then you, Governor Publius Astoria scapula began a campaign and Wales and correct UCAS ladder guerrilla campaign and response, but was defeated when he finally give open battle. He fled to the organic phase or Roman client tribe. And the pen lines, my, why would you flee to a tribe who were basically allied to the Romans? I have no idea. That is lost to time, I'm afraid. But their queen cat, Amanda, was unwilling or unable to help him because of her alliance with the Romans. And so she handed him over to the Romans. Our story has died and was replaced with ILS studious Gallus, who brought the Welsh borders under control. What happened in Britain under narrow when glorious eventually died, when Nero succeeded Claudius and 54 AD, he continued the invasion and he appointed Quintus Voronezh as governor. Voronezh had experience of dealing with difficult hill tribes and Anatolia or Asia Minor. Voronezh and his successors, plutonium is Polynices, mounted a successful campaign and they killed many drugs, not the word drew. It does not refer to a member of a particular religion that's not a religious term. Other drugs had a religious rule, a derivative was a Caltech Nobel drills where a class, basically unimportant class within British society and many of them were killed. And the invasion of angle theta and 60 or 61 AD. B2c has rebellion forced the Romans to return to the Southeast. And the final occupation of Wales was postponed. 69 a day clean-cut. Amanda, who we've heard about before, ruled the eastern brook counties and her husband of annuities ruled the Western began face. Validity is actually rebelled against cab Andra and she went to the Romans for it. They evacuated the tar on left of annuities and power. According to the historian Tacitus, in 71 a day you, the governor Quintus basileus Coriolis waged a successful war against the bric counties, who had been a client tribe of the Romans. On the conquest of Wales was completed in 70 AD. After much of Northern England, which had been a bit of a priority, has been conquered. The final conquest of Wales had occurred under the sky Julius agriculture, who was Tacitus, his father-in-law. So Tacitus tends to be very open and his praise of his father-in-law and his writings. We have to take some of it with a pinch of salt, but he conquered Wales after defeating the Ordovician Chez and Wales, he moved against the brigands and Northern England and the cell, Good-bye along the southern coast of Scotland. Now because of Hadrian's wall dividing England and Scotland, we may think that the Romans were never and trusted and Scotland, but that's not actually the case. So regular won a significant victory against the British people at the Battle of moles Gropius and antithrombin III AD. The British were led by a guy called calc Glaucus and he was achieved and other Caledonian Confederacy, in other words, he's what we would call today skeletal show their Scotland as a concept was a very different thing at that point in history. But kalguksu is a name, means possessing a bled. Incidentally. After this agriculture built a network of roads and forths consolidating control of the glands that provided access to the Scottish Highlands. The line of military supply and communication alongside Eastern Scotland or Northeastern England was called Dare straight. The Romans soon abandoned Caledonia, however, because there was tuna again to be hard for too much effort and constantly fighting the locals. So they're actually a little bit afraid of the inhabitants of Scotland. By Eddie seven AD, there was really no Imperial well for expansion of the Scotland and Ireland. And so the plan was to consolidate along the stand get and just keep their existing lands and Britannia and what we might call today England and Wales. Hadrian's Wall that we've mentioned. Under the emperor Hadrian, trips were withdrawal behind the defensible border of Hadrian's wall so they could defend the wall, provided a pretty clear border. You can see it pictured here. I've visited that, which I highly recommend. It's a very beautiful part of the countryside apart from anything else. Hadrian's Wall began to be constructed in 122 a day to keep the pigs. Britannia. Tribes in Scotland and Northern England frequently attacked on rebelled. So the wall on the forests were maintained through the North. The Romans were in Britain for around 400 years and left around the time that their empire started to dissolve. I don't like to do this often, but I'm gonna quote Wikipedia here. By the early fifth century, the Roman Empire could no longer defend itself against either internal rebellion or the external threat posed by Germanic tribes expanding in Western Europe. This situation and its consequences governed the eventual permanent detachment of Britain from the rest of the empire. So basically, they just leave. The Romans left when the empire started to fall and this was around 388,480 day. Many of the structures, ideas and place names, but the Roman left behind and Gerrard from many centuries, some to this day, including Hadrian's Wall, which were saying on this place where I lived for a year, It's amazing. Plants on this is a picture of the Roman baths in Bath, which are absolutely amazing to visit. You can imagine Romans jumping in that pool county lot. It's just been beautifully maintained. So there are places like Hadrian's wall above. And when it comes to place names, the word Castro and Latin means castle or Fort. Add a name in English that ends in Chester comes from broadcast address. So Rochester, Winchester, Lancaster. Actually, it's not just her, but it's the same word, Chester of course. Some of the roads that they left behind latitude roads that came later. The influence of Latin or the English language that we speak today. You can really tell that England and Wales, Britain as a place where the Romans have been. 4. Life in Roman Britain: So what was life like in Roman Britain? And hot might be different than the high, might not be similar to the way that we live today. Let's talk a little bit about the Romans on the Britons. There were of course a lot of wars and rebellions that quite a lot of violence going on or rhonchi or not, must have had an impact on people's daily lives. But over time, the customs of the Romans and the Britons kind of mixed and people shared the island. The Romans brought some really interesting technology that the Britons had not, had. They built roads. Road might not sound like an exciting thing at this point in history. But can you imagine living with ICT, well-built roads? I mean, they had several advantages. You could move things around without needing a waterway to do do you didn't have to follow the coast or use rivers. And so you could just go from a to B from major times using these roads. The roads, well, basically stopped you from getting lost because you have the road to follow. It was an amazing improvements. And actually a lot of the Roman roads were used well into the Anglo-Saxon period. Beyond. And modern roads are in some of the same places. The Romans also brought aqueducts. Aqua is the Latin for water and duct comes from the verb, too late. So it's the Roman equivalent of plumbing, being able to move water about. And that would've been very exciting to the local Britains. They also built settlements on forests. They didn't have complex machinery to carry out these projects. Way we might have for construction projects and our ED, they used slaves for heavy lifting and construction. And really an awful lot of their projects on their daily life was dependent on slavery. You can see a picture here of a Roman road. It's by no means the tarmac roads that we have today. Each of those stones laid and this would have had to have been quarried, carried uncertain. Play a sound that was actually very hard work. Let's talk about some of the times and settlements that they belt. You can see here a picture of so Chester. And remember we said earlier that the word Chester comes from the Latin word Castro for a fourt. This is the world time of sale, Chester and Roman times. Romans built Times that had shops, meeting spaces, temples on bath houses. So they were very similar to what a modern time might look like today. Places for people to go shopping, meet their friends. This is a warship. Bath houses. There is a very well-preserved Roman baths. Botha course and England, which is really worth going to say, that was somewhere that people met. These times were protected by fortified walls, which you can see in the picture here. At one example of a world time would be abiraterone, which is modern York. Other Roman times included acquired sulcus, which is Botha, was named thought because the goddess sue, the Caltech Godess, really reminded the Romans of their own goddess Minerva. There were some similarities between these two figures. Also because they were from a warm climate at labeling a lot warmer than the UK. In bath water comes out of the rocket a byte 40 Celsius and has to be cooled down for people to get into the water epithermal spot, which currently stands, and both use a similar technology to the old Roman baths. They were quite excited when they find this pace because it had hate. They called it the waters of sou. It was somewhere that they gravitated towards. There was also a London M, modern day London. What was life like at home during the Roman period? I'm not dependent on a number of things. One key thing, bang, high, wealthy you are at another being your gender. So wealthy Romans built villas, which were like country houses and they were quite elaborate. They had mosaic floors, they had painted walls. And that doesn't just mean that they painted the walls of color. It means that they have beautiful frescoes pendant inside their homes. They also have central heating under floor heating, not just being a modern Fang. The Britons, on the other hand, lived in wooden huts with thatch roofs. So nowhere near as technologically advanced, and they tended to live in small settlement sources. The Romans had times well-developed tons man, where the heads of their households during the Roman period. And women were responsible for domestic life, for chores, kicking on childcare, unless of course they were wealthy women, which case they would have had slaves to help them with these tasks. Girls were married as young as 14, basically, as soon as they were old enough to start producing children on, a man could actually divorce his wife if she did not produce a son. Having a baby was a pretty risky thing. At that point in history though, many women died in childbirth and postnatal diseases where common. Let's talk about religion in Roman Britain, which was a big part of people's lives in which sometimes a very distinct public and domestic fifths. So the Romans pretty much tolerated other religions, so long as they incorporated the imperial cult, you had to worship the Roman emperor as a god. That might sound strange to modern sensibilities, but it was a great way of ensuring that the locals knew who was boss. The Romans try to acquit their gods, their pumpkin with local daddies. And we've seen that a bath. Sue was acquainted with the Roman goddess Minerva. I've Hadrian's Wall. There are depictions of two goals known as Mars calcareous. Mars ballot to address. These may have been British domestic gods, or they could've been brought to Britain from other parts of Europe by the Roman soldiers. They tune him suggests the Roman god on the local God as being pretty much the same figure. No Roman gods worshiped in Britain included Jupiter, who was the hands of the Roman Pantheon, the king of the gods. Juno has spiteful and jealous wife on Minerva, his favorite child who sprang from his hat and was basically his wisdom. Minerva walls, the goddess of wisdom. She was also the goddess of military strategy, whereas Mars was the god of war in terms of sort of bricked strength and fighting. Adherence to roman religion was going to secure your social advancement. But people worship the Celtic gods privately in their own homes rather than N, public worship spaces. Often. Romans and Britain's both worshiped local gods of places such as rivers and streams known as gene a. So when you hear the term Jamie and a bottle, that's where the idea comes from. These cards has to be honored. Complicated and chaos. You know, the God of the string decided to flood your house, for example. All this meant there was really no clash of belief systems but emerging a religious cultures. And that's known as synchronism. Gods appearing in groups of three, as we've just seen in the previous slide of the Janie find at Hadrian's Wall was a remnant of Iron Age beliefs. And another sort of triple God's triple goddess with a mattress. The mothers and celtic religion, of course there was the mother met and crone figure and then of course, Christianity later Wed have a Trinity. The Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity and 312 a day, and that pretty much changed the state religion of Rome and many of the rumen, a late followed. From that period, we start to see villas decorated with Christian iconography, such as the mosaic find at the hint and send Mary, which you can see pictured here. Lolling stone Roman villa and Kent includes our highest church with Christian wall paintings. So people worship at home, as well as apt temples and public and not shrines. Pagan traditions at that point we're not displaced by Christianity. Certain pagan customs continued. One very interesting one being that all the tablet, if you go to the Roman baths in Bath, you can see curse tablets. My favorite one is where a girl has written, Flavia has stolen my gloves. May she be stricken with blindness and Madness, which is a bit extreme, but that's the kind of thing that people wrote. They called on the Janie, the gods of a local shrine to grant them retribution against someone who had done them wrong, for example, had stolen their gloves. Well, I suppose it was pretty cold if you were a Roman and you find yourself in Britain. So the person who wrote this was very upset at this point in history. Even the PR, were literate enough to write a curse tablet. We've covered religion, law, Let's talk about politics and Roman Britain. The governor of Britain, we've mentioned a few in the previous video, was a lag it, or an ECS console of the highest rank of senators appointed by the Emperor, his GDS. And it would be a hymn, it would never be her. His GDS included command the armed forces on acting as supreme judge and disputes which involved Roman citizens on high-status individuals. Didn't David with sort of lesser folk. The pro curator was the person who managed for Tanya's finances. There were devolved administrations to handle local governments on justice, on taxation, and the cities. And these were run by the local British aristocracy. These civic units where the basic instrument of Roman rule through the empire. According to English heritage, the aristocracy who run these administrations had to meet certain toxic demands which they collected from the local population. They had to give a public appearance of Roman values. But apart from that, they had a lot of freedom and there were a lot of abuses of the taxation system. That was one major cause of Buddha says rebellion. And 60 AD. There were 22 major times and Britain requiring a local government. 17 of them were capitals of a civitas or a tribal area. This was the way that the Romans had sort of carved up Britain to make it easier to govern. Four of these terms were colonia. Those were settlements from Roman military veterans. Those were our code faster. Gloucester, LinkedIn, and York. London was the seat of the governor. So in essence, the capital, London has not always been the capital of England, believe it or not, at walls in the Roman period. Not so much in the Anglo-Saxon period, but of course it's being the capital for a long time, not the early Roman Empire. There were major differences in terms of rights and privileges between Roman citizens are non citizens and non-citizens were known as peregrine a wanderers. By 212 a day, either citizenship was granted to nearly every inhabitant of the empire, excluding slaves. Of course, we have no rights. What so ever. After the year 300, the Roman regime became more authoritarian as there were frequent emergencies and robe. The empire was basically starting to crumble. Bureaucracy greatly increased and that meant that for Tanya was subdivided into four sub provinces, each with its own governor and its own self-sufficient economy. The capitals of these provinces were in London. Sirens Nestor Lincoln on York. And we know that the Romans withdrew from Britain for Tanya, as they called it, somewhere between 3400 ID. So this was the beginning of the end. 5. Boudica: Now we're going to talk about a figure in British history who's a bit of a folk hero, the warrior queen, Vertica, Ladd, an uprising against the Romans, which has almost a sort of ultimate underdog story x hat for unfortunately, she didn't win. Who was buried and why did she rebel? Well, She's also known as Buddha cut with two Cs, which is the way that the Roman historian Tacitus misspelled her name because he wasn't conversant with Caltech languages. He's also sometimes referred to as boda CIA, and the Welsh name for her as Bardach. Her name means victory. She was queen of the ice CNI, a tribe inhabiting present-day Norfolk, parts of Suffolk and Kim Richard to the East of England. She lab an uprising against the Roman occupation and 60 or 61 a day. And why did she do this? Well, her husband King proceedings, who had died, was nominally independent ally of Rome. He had chosen the path of least resistance when the Romans came, he realized that he couldn't beat them and it was better to be on their side, So he did everything to duplicate them. And fact, Tacitus tells us they, I say Nian Qing proceedings celebrated for his long prosperity. Man the emperor, his heir to gather with his two daughters and active deferens, which he thought would place his kingdom in high-school beyond the risk of injury. The result was contrary so much so that his kingdom was pillaged by centenarians and his household by slaves as though they had been prizes of war. So you can see here that Tacitus, He is roman, agrees the Buddha cat has an ax to grind her husband at fault that he was keeping his family and his kingdom safe. And as soon as he dies at his pillaged by quite low ranking officers century and was only in charge of a 100 people, but even worse was yet to come. Tacitus farther tells us that Buddha was flogged on her daughter's ripped. That was an act of purposeful, hideous disrespect. She just could not let that lie. The estates of icy night dignitaries were then confiscated and completely taken away. She has herself being flogged. Her daughters have been horribly assaulted and other leading members of her try have lost their property. So any queen is going to have to do something in this situation. She begins uprising in 60 or 61 a day. The governor's Suetonius politeness was on campaign and Wales. And so it was a good time for Buddha on her forces to strike in England. And so she loved the I say neither twin Avante and other tribes and revolt. Tacitus gives us a very good reason that the trend of Anthony's joined the ICSI. It was against the veterans that their hatred was the most intense for these new settlers. And the colony of commun laudanum drove people out of their houses, objective them from their farms, called them captives on slaves. Colonies or colonia, as we know, where settlements for retired or veteran Roman army officers, Kami laudanum being modern day coach faster. And so the trend of things had lost their land, had lost their means of fading themselves on, had lost their freedom. And history teaches us over and over again. And we see in the world today that when people are forced away from their land, their property is taken from them. But generally a war or some kind of violence will see the robe, the rebels then completely destroyed the colony outcome. You laudanum. Roman soldiers defend at the Temple of Claudius there for a byte two days before being killed. The Temple of Claudius was a very strategic target because Claudius was the emperor who had started this current occupation. Also because, as we heard in the previous video, Britons were expected to follow the coat of the Roman Empire. The Roman emperor walls or God Claudius had been dead for a few years at that point on the present emperor walls narrow. They seized the head of a bronze statue of narrow as a trophy, which was a way of saying we are not going to follow rows that the Romans had put down for us on showing disrespect for the leader of the Romans. The future governor at Quintus patella is Kary Mullis, try to relieve the city bought was signed late, defeated, all his infantry were killed, but he escaped himself with a few cavalry officers. Katas, deck IANA. So he was the curator, flagged to God, the Creator as we heard before, walls and charge of Bhutanese finances. And it so happened that he was trying to get back money that had been given to the British nobility by Claudius that caused huge problems. And also the Roman financier sweat Tonia, was trying to call an, his stats. And those were two other big reasons why the rebels. Wanted to end the occupation. They were facing financial hardships because of us. On hearing that Diana's had flat, many of the traders on wealthy citizens and London Van flat, realizing that London would probably be the next target. Suetonius, the governor's petunia, It's not the financier risk to London as it was then known via waffling straight. As we heard before, a straight was not just somewhere where people lived with, there were shops. It was a man artery throughout the country acting a bit like a border where you could transport goods, military, that kind of thing. So I thought point London was only 20 years old and it was a vibrant commercial center. And Suetonius rightly believed that it would be the rebels next target. Suetonius did not have the numbers to defend London him, He evacuated and a bound on that before the rebels killed everyone who was left there burned the city. They also barn very Lamarckian near modern dice and albums. Buddha cars, Forces numbered up to a 120 thousand people at that stage, it's a huge force, much bigger than the Roman force. The rebels killed between 7080 thousand people when they sacked the three cities of common laudanum, London M on very large. They killed many of these people by torture using the exhibit fire on crucifixion. A very gory means of death, really created by the Romans, where someone was nailed to a cross of which died slowly perhaps over days and excruciating PIN. They were not interested in taking prisoners. They wanted to kill people. Kind of feels a little personal. It doesn't less, it's all based on this huge amount of anger, understandable anger. And so Suetonius regrouped and gathered more numbers, although he only managed to raise by tan thighs and man as opposed to a vertical force which at that point had grown to between 230 on 300 thousand fighters. Nevertheless, Suetonius decisively defeated the rebellion because Roman ways of fighting, or just much more advanced than British ways, they even killed women and animals when they want, and that was very much against Roman custom. Narrow Huldah actually considered withdrawing the Romans from Britain because of the uprising and the successes they were having. Button I, he changed his mind. Suetonius started to carry out punishments against surviving rebels, but narrow feared that thought could just lead to another uprising. There are differing accounts of what heartened to Buddha cat after she lost. Tacitus claim she killed herself with poison and killing yourself after a major defeat would've been considered the Nobel thing to do by the Romans. Cassio DO claims she died of an illness that would explain why her huge force was in such disarray and why they actually lost because they were without their leader at possibly, but we really don't know. And we don't know what became of her daughters. Many centuries later during the Elizabethan period, Queen Elizabeth the first was compared with Beta Kappa shame was tasked with repelling the Spanish who were also invaders on the works of Tacitus had been newly rediscovered around that time in history. So Buddha starts to arise as this sort of folk hero figure within Britain. Interest in Buddha also peaked in the Victorian period because you have Queen Victoria, her name is victory. She had actually been Princess Alexandra, Anna and her youth and had chosen the rational name, the royal name of Victoria. She was thought of as being Buddha, is Nim sick. It's interesting whenever there is a female monarch and trust in Vertica re-emerges. Let's hear a little bit of Casio Dios description of Beta Kappa. We'd obviously don't have any pictures of her to know what she looked like. But Casio do describes Buddha as tall on frightening to look out with Tony hair down to her waist. And apparently she had a harsh voice on our piercing glare. Well, that's possibly because the woman was angry. She habitually wore a gold necklace, possibly a torque. Basically like a big ring, gold ring that goes around your neck, colored chin tuck and a thick cook fastened with approaches so she didn't draft a tall the way our Roman Liddy would have drafted. He records a speech she gave where she told the tribes that life was better before the Romans Kim, that wealth could not be enjoyed with freedom, and that she should have repelled the Romans when they first arrived as Julius Caesar had been repelled. So she starts to repent of her husband's attitude earlier attitude of the royals of the IC and that they should do what they can to add the Romans that they should be on AMA, opcode amicable terms with the Romans. 6. The Roman City of Bath: So I'm really excited to talk about the Roman city of baths or acquire the waters of the goddess sue, as the Romans called it. Because if you're interested in Roman history, especially the history of the Romans in Britain. It's a fascinating place. And also as I mentioned before, I lived there, I did one of my degrees there. And looking at this picture is like walking down memory lane. Know, just look at high well preserved. That says you can imagine people jumping into this water just like we like a spot i and the current edge, the Romans loved to mate in the baths. It was a very sociable place to go. There wasn't just the baths to enjoy. There were steam rooms, all kinds of fun things to do. And the technology that ran at all, it's still on view tasks for us to look at. We can see high, they hated the place, for example, although NB Arthur is mineral water, so the water actually comes out of the ground at 40 Celsius. And in the modern thermal spot, they have to cool it down rather than heated up for people to get into the water. You can say at why the Romans, he came from a warm climate, believed that this place was touched by the god asks that it was a holy players because they thought, Oh, psych Minerva, various hate because they must have felt freezing when they came to Britain. Now there's more to see at the Roman Baths than just the baths. There is the collection, some really amazing archaeological finds and some of them was famous Roman discoveries in Britain such as the head of Minerva Sue bang, the Celtic goddess Minerva, her Roman equivalent. So it's this fusion, the syncretism between the two religions from two different places. So look at the detail and this hat. So it was a suggestion when it was fined and 1727, but the site and Beth was not going to be an ordinary excavation. The head is probably from the cult statue of the goddess, which would have stood within her temple beside the sacred spring. From there, she may have looked at across the temple courtyard to the site of the grip alter, the side of sacrifice, which did at the heart of that sacred space. So this was meant to allow an overall you, when you first saw at date at does another really famous discovery and bath. The temple pediments on the Gorgons had nine in Greco-Roman mythology, if you looked at a Gorgon, you would be turned to stone. So don't look at this for too long. This was discovered in 1790 and it's huge, like when you say it in real life, it is absolutely massive. And it would have been part of a temple that stood and bath. And the imagery on it as full of illusions that are tritons who are servants of the water or sea god Neptune who are half man, half fish. So that male mermaids, the central head is held aloft by female victories on a shield ringed with oak leaves. So the Romans as conquerors as being reinforced hair. So this as something amazing to say, but my personal favorite items to see a bath are the curse tablets, because they tell you so much by ordinary people. So I told you the story before all of the cars tablet that says someone has stolen my gloves. I want her to be struck with blindness, our madness, you think, way harsh. And some of them do come across as quite Papi, so they can be quite funny, but actually some of them are very sad. You know, the modern tradition of throwing coins and to her Fontan, I'm making a wish. It actually comes from the Roman practice of putting curse tablets into the water. So the tablets and bath, or believed orange and debt from the second to the fourth century. The tablets were rolled up and thrown into the spring. Obviously you can write on paper because it would just turn to mush, you have to find something pretty solid to write on. And so the spirit of the goddess Minerva dwelt in the spring and I would hopefully ground your desire for revenge. They are mostly from people who had suffered an injustice, asking for wrongs to be put right on for revenge. Priors revealed the anger felt by ordinary people at the laws of what seemed to us to be modest everyday items such as the gloves, but which were very important to people who at that time had few personal possessions. So as we said before, you take somebody's stuff or their property, there's going to be trouble. But if you find yourself in Bath, really do go and look at these and the Roman baths and ask the tour guides to bite them because they know a law by them, because they are absolutely fascinating. Bath is famous for its Roman history. But also you can see in the picture here, the medieval RB behind the Roman Baths. It's also famous for its Georgia and history. And if you're a fan of the English writer Jane Austin, It's an amazing place to visit. 7. The Anglo Saxons : In this video, we're going to talk about the Anglo-Saxons. An Anglo as an English is a big term. And really the idea of Englishness as coming up bite in this period. Were the Anglo-Saxons. Well, the Anglo-Saxons where migrants from the North Sea coast lands. He arrived in Britain in the fifth century. And this was part of a larger trend throughout Europe. There was a mass migration from the period 37528088, known as the folks around the room, as in the people's wandering and German. Until about 400 AD, britain had been the Roman province of Britannia, and the Romans left. There was a bit of a vacuum. Although the historian Kenneth dark has concluded that the suburban a late the suburban period, the period after the Romans left of course. But the suburban and late returns a cultural, political, and military power up to a byte 578 days. So there's a little bit of an overlap between the Anglo-Saxon period and the sub Roman period. The Anglo-Saxon period though, is generally thought of as the period between 450, feminist it 1066. There was a mixing of Anglo-Saxons and dramatic groups. I'm local tribes. So the population is actually a little bit varied and it is changing during this period. There was a flowering of art and literature during the Anglo-Saxon period. You can see an example of Anglo-Saxon art. Here to the right. What was the lasting influence of the Anglo-Saxons? Why are we still interested in them? Well, 26% of the words and modern English that we speak today come from Anglo-Saxon, but they tend to be the words that we use all the time. I've just used the word book. That's an Anglo-Saxon word, for example. Not generally in the English language, we can say that very legal language, formal language comes from Latin, which in the medieval period was the language of the church on official documents would have been written in Latin. Very formal language that we would use in letters such as say, you're sincerely, comes from a French route because French was the language of the court after the Normans landed, Anglo-Saxon words tend to be coarser words, swear words, the worst swear word in English as all French extraction. But a lot of the other words that you might let rep with if you drop something on your fit, are basically Anglo-Saxon. The Anglo-Saxons created regional governments known as shires. On these Shires are still evidence and maps of England today. They create a charters on laws, which was a very important development in society. They left behind literature such as Beowulf, which is something that people still reads dynamic movies or bite. Although many early medieval writings, Anglo-Saxon writings were destroyed when Henry the Eighth dissolved the monasteries. Sadly, we don't have the inheritance from them that we could have had before the Anglo-Saxons. Stories were passed on an oral tradition on the important thing is that they wrote them down. They were written down in monasteries, which meant that he could be preserved for posterity. Let's talk a little bit about the term Anglo-Saxon, Anglo English. As I said before, that is a concept that's really starting to come together in this period. There's this other word sucks and, well, English is the official name of people who come from England and sex and or SaaS Anakin, that tends to be a word that's maybe not button nice about English people. So let's find out a little bit about both these terms. They'd referred to the Anglo. And around 730 day, angry, later becoming English. But two centuries before that in 530 AD, guild us use the term sexiness and I bade walls among a scholar and a historian during throughout Europe. And Gilda similarly was monk and a scholar who left us historical records. Pope Gregory the first use the phrase non ING said Angelie, not English, but angels thus became the ecclesiastical or charged name for the people in that region. So that was the name that they chose to adopt. It can suggest that they were chosen by God, are favored by God, they're enemies I ever, the sculpture depicts and the Irish used words like sausage, OK, which derived from section. You could still be called assassin. Ok. If you are English on, in Scotland today or if you are a lead character and Islander. If you've seen the show, you'll know what I mean. This word Saxon is actually associated with words for thief, Moroder, Pirate General, person who means no good. Basically. Let's talk a little bit about the makeup of Anglo-Saxon society. You'll see pictured here, a burger or a Birra, as it became an modern English, which was high. The Anglo-Saxons lived at sort of forte, but they lived in kinship groups with tribes on overlords called fins. This idea of a kinship group, a bit like a clam. Being the men structure of society is very strong and Anglo-Saxon culture and their volume of kinship and lordship is saved in the literature they left behind, such as in Beowulf. In the Battle of modem, for example. The archaeologist Helena Hammurabi commented that local and extended kin groups remain the essential unit of production through the Anglo-Saxon period right up to 1066. They settled in Berg's, which were fortified settlements on this actually comes from the German word for castle. And these weren't just the places that people lived. They were also defensive, unused for defending the country. For example, Alfred the grids used a network of Berg's to defend against the Vikings. And the ninth century, it was the best way to keep people safe during a Viking read. There were an essence for key structures and Anglo-Saxon society. The carol or the freedmen farmers, sort of middle-class, self-sufficient farmer who, these were the lowest class of freedmen, but society really depended on them. Smaller areas of feeding into larger kingdoms as a big concept and Anglo-Saxon England, there was not a unified England as we know it today and that period, there was a collection of smaller kingdoms which were often at odds with each other. Then there was the elite warriors to kings on you were considered a key member of society and Anglo-Saxon England, if you could swing a sword that was very much valued. Irish monasticism underfitting on Colombia, on more generally the par of the Church other, we're going to talk a little bit about Irish monasticism litter. The church was responsible for preserving documents because monks could write on my heart scribes. The charts provided centers of learning and education and it was also where you went if you were ill, they met evil equivalent of the hospital. So everybody at some point would have had some contact with the church. It was a very powerful institution in society. Let's talk a little bit about the rise of the Anglo-Saxons. 540 guilders wrote that in the fifth century, a conflict british leaders had a grade that land and southern Britain would be given to the Saxons further it and defending the Britons against the picks and the sculpts. That account is actually reinforced by the chronic a galaxy of 452 and records for the year 441. So we're pretty sure this is how things started. Ict guild records animosity between the Anglo-Saxons and the metopes. There is some contention on the Saxons end up leaving, but they come back with a better daily receiving tributes from the British lowlands. So bead records three phases of the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain exploration. They came and they electrons and worked out what was going on in this place. Migration, where they came in greater numbers and establishment when they started to control areas. There's no consensus regarding their numbers at the beginning though, some historians believed there were around 200 thousand settlers and others as few as 20 thousand. Other recent genetic studies suggest that actually settlement took place over centuries and not in one huge initial with what did the Saxons do with the Britons who had been there before them? Well, by arrived 500 AD, Anglo-Saxon communities were established in southern and eastern Britain. And we estimate that a random million people lived in these areas by the sixth century. So their numbers were really growing. And it was traditionally believed that the Anglo-Saxons basically just wiped ICT the Britons. But it's possible that they aren't Brad them or that the Britons were more susceptible to plagues, carried on Roman training rates, and therefore died of natural causes and started died of natural causes. But they might also have migrated to our Monica, which is in modern-day France between the sand on the lower lip, seventh century, the laws of King in a GIF, Britain's last rites less rights and lower status than the Anglo-Saxons that might've caused Britons to adopt Anglo-Saxon culture and start identifying as Anglo-Saxon. Thus. Leading to the demise of photonic culture. The historian Nicolas Chaim had this to say. Circumstances where freedom at law, acceptance with kindred access to patronage on the use and possession of weapons were all exclusive to those who could claim Germanic descent. Then speaking Old English without Latin, Arbor, tonic, and flexion had considerable value. I said earlier on that we talk about Irish monasticism and unimportant plants called Iona. The year 565, a monastery was founded on the Scottish island of Iona on FPKM. What Professor MRI does Peter Bryan at Princeton University calls. And unusually extensive spiritual empire, stretching from Western Scotland deep to the Southwest and to the heart of Ireland. And to the south east. It reached down throughout Northern Britain through the influence of its sister mono straight Lindisfarne. Basically remember there is no United Kingdom at that point in history. So this Christianity is tying the kingdoms together, creating this common thread. I own a hobby and settled by the Irish monk Columba, also an ascent Colombia who had been sent by his mentor, sent that in way back in the mists of time. As Roman Britain was drawing it sand. Young lad called Patrick, was captured by the Irish and became a slave and Ireland, and he escaped from Ireland, but little returned to spread Christianity. Here, the Irish are bringing Christianity back to England. In bringing Christianity, they don't just bring a religion though, of course that was something very, very important that they brought. They bring the learning of Greek and Latin on the ancient world education. They bring innovations and technology. Irish monks at men drum and Northern Ireland, frank close to where I'm from, just out of undressed, had invented water mills that were really the peak of technology of the dark edges. All kinds of things associated with civilization on socialization. Kim with these Irish monks actually dance note recently did a very interesting program for the BBC that you might still find on iPlayer called high the Irish civilized Britain. And it very much focuses on this period. By the 597, Colombia had died, and St. Augustine landed on the island of planet, having been sent by Pope Gregory the first to evangelize the kingdom of Kent might why specifically Kent of all the English kingdoms? Well, Augustine heads to the capital established by King F Albert, counter break contemporary of course, still associated with Christianity. The Archbishop of Canterbury, bang, the spiritual later of the Church of England, had of course being the Queen. But the reason that he had a counterbore once the APA, Bart's wife Queen Bertha, was the Christian daughter of Cheryl Bear the first king of Paris. Shape possibly was considered to have been unlikely ally in this mission. And so Kent was chosen. Alphabet converted, and churches were built on a wide scale. Conversion to Christianity began. N6 35, the Irish monk hadn't established Lindisfarne, which you can also go and say Lindisfarne today. In response to King All Souls requests for attained to evangelize Northumbria, of which Oswald was king. Let us Farm was close to Oswald's key fortress that bombard also have flagged as a younger man when his father was killed and I've hidden in Scotland, I'm not swear he encountered Christians and converted to Christianity, and now he wants to convert the whole of his kingdom. He acted as an interpreter when Adam preached in Irish. So if the king is speaking to you on the king is interpreting your of lesser status when you've really got to listen, don't you? The patrons sense of north umbrellas and Cuthbert was actually avid at Lindisfarne on the anonymous life of Saint Cuthbert, which was discovered at Lindisfarne is the oldest surviving English historical text. Christianity brought certain things with it. Literacy was something very important that it brought Christianity of course, relies on the concept of the word. And before the arrival of Christianity, there was an oral literary tradition. Among the Anglo-Saxons that information was passed on orally. Now we have monks, scribes, writing things down on vellum and monasteries and writing on vellum was not like scribbling something in a book. It was actually back breaking work at Cheng letters into chi hide with very costly inks on a book or something that might have taken months. To create, but fortunately because they were writing things down in this period, quite a lot of texts survived night I mentioned before the Henry, The, its dissolution of the monasteries destroyed a lot of early medieval documents. But we still have some of the literature and thinking of the Anglo-Saxons because of this arrival of literacy. Although at this point, not the whole of the population are literate. Education. Monasteries were centers of learning and they taught Greek and Latin. Medicine night by the later medieval period. If you have been L, it's quite likely that you would have been treated by monks in a monastery. But even at this point in history, the church, the monasteries are starting to become associated with Madison. Christianity brought a connection with wider Europe, which was Christianized. And other monasteries on a continent, for example, Bobby, and it really brought England into what Dan Snow calls civilisation. The wider network of Europe on increased learning. Then as foreign, very beautiful. I go sacks and monasteries included double monastery and not miss something. Only Anglo-Saxon monasteries features, it didn't happen on the continent and these were, were monks and nuns lived separately, but they shared a church in the middle. There were governed by abbess says, who were among the most powerful women in Europe. One of the most notable products of the monastic education available, walls bays, and we're going to talk about Baden, his own video later. And he actually gained a reputation across Europe for English historical writing, for theology and for astronomical computation of deaths. Because remember they had to work out every year at the date of Easter, which comes from the Jewish lunar calendar. And they had to work out when celebrated and a solar calendar. Let's talk about one of the most dominant kingdoms in Anglo-Saxon England, Mircea on the mercy and MRSA and Old English means the people of the marshes. The mercy is basically had a policy of ravaging the other kingdoms and throwing their width a bite on, killing a few people, stealing a few things, which was actually considered a grid thing to do. And Anglo-Saxon England, if you were mercy in bade records a miraculous intervention by sin Adam as having saved Northumbria from panda, the fearsome king of the marshlands. Interestingly, panda is a Caltech rather than an Anglo-Saxon Nim. West sex began to rise in power and the ninth century and its king Egbert, who was crying and at O2, defeated an attempt to read Northern wheelchair by the mercy. And so they started to become a little bit less feared. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. And at 29 eg, Britain had conquered the kingdom of the mercy and send everything south of the Humbert. The boundary lines are starting to shift. Then there was an even more fearsome set of murders. The Vikings. In 753, the Vikings first invaded and they rated Lindisfarne where they captured all the valuables, which included the relics of Saint Cuthbert on slaughtered the monks. The Viking raids continued until at 15, I went to own for decades. Then they stopped just reading from boats off the coast on, started staying for the winter, setting up an area under Viking jurisdiction known as the deadlock. And Northern and Eastern England. They set up puppet kings, such as Kayla, Wolf and Marsha and others. So they were sort of not officially in charge, but they were pulling strings. This common animate actually helped coalesce a sense of an English national identity. Because whatever you thought of your own king, everybody hated the Vikings. Just a little interesting fact. You know the phrase and the English pinching the time rad, we're going to pay at the time RAD, which now means going right for a really big night. This comes from Viking invasions of Anglo-Saxon England, where they would have gone into a village burger settlement, slaughtered the leaders of sad on repented their homes with their blood. Hence painting, the time read, pretty great. Isn't it? At first King Alfred offered tribute payments to the Vikings, but after his victory at Addington in at seven it, he started a strongly fight back against the so-called grid army, as they were known and continental Europe. So he built a chain of fortresses and he ordered a new type of boat to be boat to fight the Vikings and shallow coastal waters. Where the Vikings landed from the continent because they tended to come and widths. And 92 they find they can no longer just pillage around the place unopposed to the English were not going to fight. Or the Anglo-Saxons, even after about four years, the Vikings either settled in Northumbria or East ikea, or they left for the continent. We talked about high. The Viking invasions started to create a sense of English national identity. Let's talk a little bit about the unification of England, which remember during most of the Anglo-Saxon period, have been made up of smaller kingdoms. In the 10th century, the West Saxon kings extended their power over Mircea, the Southern deadlock, as well as Northumbria. So binary start to shift again. England starts to unify on the power and prestige of the monarchy increased. This process started with the children of Alfred, the grid, Edward the algebra and his sister, F A-flat Lady of the mercy. And you might notice this prefix Ethel a lot. In Anglo-Saxon names. It means noble. Just **** there. F A-flat and admins encourage people to buy land that was under Danish control. They encouraged landowners to start taking overland for the Anglo-Saxons. Basically, when ethyl fat diets, Mircea was absorbed by West sex at that point. So that was a very big change. And binaries Athelstan, who was the son of Edward the elder, was celebrated and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as the first king of England. So this is when it really all comes together. Other thought was not uncontested and his day on Athelstan successors, admins and address had difficulty and suffering. The North England wasn't quite what it is. Other England that we know not was beginning to take shape. Let's talk about a bit of an unfortunate figure, an Anglo-Saxon history. Ethyl read the unwrapping. Unready does not mean that he wasn't organized or he didn't get up in time for his breakfast. In Old English and Anglo-Saxon English, the word red means wisdom, Spirit, geology, good leadership. It's a bit like PA tasks in Latin. A sense that you would be on all Ron's good guy could be described as having this red and he's unraveled. So he's the opposite of that. Quite frankly, he was one foo and it has disastrous rim lasted from 978 until 1016. And it ultimately paved the way for the Norman conquest. Viking raids had resumed and 98, by 10091012, large parts of the country had been devastated by Thorkil the tall, a Viking later, Grit epithet thought the tall. There were some grid epithets around this period of history. The King of Denmark, a swine fork Baird, speaking of epithets, conquered England and 1013 to 14 oxytocin connote intent 15 to 1016. Now you might think that I've dispelled a very rude word wrongly. Connect can also be spelled about CAN UTA. There is, of course, the famous story by the 12th century historian Henri of Huntington. I bite can connect commanding the tide to go backwards so that it wouldn't wet his fate. Some sort of moral, moral point of that story was that even a great king cannot command nature, and nature's ultimately in the control of God. And at the end of the story, he admits the superior part of golf. Basically, we even use the phrase, you can't turn the tide night. So that could be where you've heard that name before. If you have, during this time provided pretty inadequate leadership, the Vikings are attacking and the people are not being governed or protected well, the writings of Alfred can withstand, suggests that people saw Viking raids as a punishment from God. Not only to the people but all in there and adequate King. They had what Malcolm gotten the historian calls expectations of the Apocalypse. Now, if that sounds a little bit far-fetched, while actually the Vikings were a bit like the end of the world, they were coming in on really ravaging the police, killing people, taking food and valuables. It was a serious situation. 1016 ethyl read was succeeded by his son Edmund Iron sides and other brilliant epithet there. After the English were defeated at the Battle of awesome done on October 1016, admins and grade that admin would rely on connect with MRSA, the two larger kingdoms. But conveniently for connote, Edmund died shortly afterwards and then seized power over all of England. Connote, unfortunately destroyed the relationship between the monarchy on the aristocracy. So the powerful weren't, are not bonded together but opposing each other and not have a negative impact on national stability. We are not verging towards the Norman conquest. And how did that happen? Well, in 1042 AdWords the confessor became king. He would've been thought of as a Norman, are labeled a normal by continental Europeans. He may have promised William of Normandy, otherwise known as William the Conqueror. The succession. Edward the confessor. Confessor does not mean like he can fast to wrong day, means he was a confessor of the fifth. He was proud to be Christian, but unfortunately took this a little bit far on how to celebrate marriage. So obviously he had no errors. I'm not wasn't great for national stability. According to William of Normandy. William of Normandy, whilst his chosen successor, but that was obviously disputed. He outlawed as an Edward, outlawed Godwin of Wessex when he refused to provide accommodation for the king's Norman friends. Now I can you imagine the cost and difficulty providing accommodation to a whole bunch of normal nights. But Godwin a. Refuses to do this, and the consequences on him are harsh. Godwin and his friends came with a force, and the king midterms with them. At that point, unpopular normal, such as Archbishop Roberts, who was the first norm and Archbishop of Canterbury in a very powerful position in the country where driven height. So at this point in the Normans don't seem to be ascending. All this based on the lasting legacy of ethyl rads and competence and things had started to come on down, actually paved the way for the Norman conquest. And tan, 66, when William, who became the Conqueror, came to assert his claim. 8. Alfred the Great : In this video, we're going to talk about one of the most famous of Anglo-Saxon leaders that King of Wessex, Alfred the Great, who was King Alfred? Well, his official biographer, bishop asked her who had also been his teacher, describes him amongst his family and his peers as being a bit like this. He was greatly loved more than all his brothers by his father and mother, and date by everybody with a universal and profound love. He was always brought up in the royal court. I'm nowhere else. He was seemed to be more commonly an appearance than his other brothers, a more pleasing and monitor speech on behavior. And in spite of all the demands of the present life, it has been the desire for wisdom more than anything else, together with the nobility of his birth, which have a characterize the nature of his noble mind. Now this is hardly objective because Alfred engaged OS or to write this biography. But this idea of King all for this bang of Nobel mind, he is remembered in history as an intellectual and as a progressive thinker and dark edge terms. King lived from it 48 or possibly at 49 until the 26th of October at 99. He was king of the West Saxon from it 71 to 86. He was not the first king to hold the title of king of England, as we've seen before, other, an awful lot of other areas did submit to his leadership. He was the youngest son of King ethyl wolf. So no one really would have thought that he would have ended up on the throne. And he survived his three brothers, each of whom read before him, Ethel bold, F Albert's on ethyl. Ethyl and Old English means Nobel in it. It sort of signifies big a member of the royal family, just in case you were wondering, he defended the kingdom against the Vikings. And that's really what he's remembered in history for wedding a decisive victory at the Battle of Addington. And at 70, it's before that he had paid tribute as did other Anglo-Saxon leaders. But after that, he starts fighting back against the Vikings. And the agreements that he met after the Battle of Addington resulted in the creation of the Dan law that the Viking area in Northern England. He oversaw the conversion of the Viking later Gotham to Christianity. That was very tactical, as we'll see later. He promoted education which he believed should be an English, not in Latin. So that was very forward thinking for his time. He improved the legal system and the military and some of the reforms that he met have lasting implications right the way through to today. He became known as the grid and the 16th century. He's actually the only English monarch to be accorded with the Title VII grit with the possible exception of kin connote other, he was arguably diminish rather than English. So here we see a statue of Alfred's in a place called voltage, which is where he was born. He was born in the royal estate of Vantage, the youngest of six children. His father being king ethyl Wolf on his mother Queen Osbourne. Wants, which was embarks on bar CIA had been disputed between West axon to the kingdom of Mircea. But at walls and West sex at the time of Alfred's birth. His mother is described by us or as a most religious women. Nobel by temperament and Noble by birth on she was descended from the royal family of the Isle of Wight. Sadly, she died while Alfred was relatively young. Let's look a little bit at Alfred's marriage and family. It 68 he married elsewhere, who was a daughter of the mercy and algebra, which is a bit like a jig. Ethyl read Merkle. In other words, ethyl read the grit that the sort of the grant list of the ethyl rads, you'll notice there were lots of people called ethyl rat around this period in history. Add bar. It was descended from the Marxian royal families. He was youngest son, so he perhaps wasn't expected to make quite as high profile marriage as his older brothers. Their children ended up being quite famous. A couple of them, especially ethyl flat Liddy of the mercy and Nike married ethyl rat, who was Lord of the Martians after he died, she became political leader in her own right. And we don't have very many recordings of female leaders among an Anglo-Saxon societies. And she's a very interesting figure. Edward the elder was Alfred successor. Ethyl ether was abbess of Shaftesbury and we heard before thought the basses, we're amongst some of the most powerful women in Europe. Ethyl threat, a daughter who buried Baldwin kinds of Flanders. And Ethel Howard, who was a wealthy landowner. Night they may have had another child. Some historians believe they had six rather than five children, and some historians believe that Alfred had a number of legitimate children as well. The succession in the time of Alfred wasn't as cut and dry as it became for centuries where the oldest male succeeded. When Alfred's grandfather Egbert, became king and OT, no son had inherited the throne from his father. And the kingdom of West X4 up by 200 years. Egbert was what was known as an ethylene contender for the throne. Ethel, as we know, meaning nobles, It's like princelings, a descendant of cardiac who find the West Saxon devastate Egbert side and at 39, and he was succeeded by his son F01 Wolf. After that, all subsequent West Saxon kings were descended from eg Britain. Alpha wolf on the throne was passed from father to son. So let's talk about the West Saxons and relation to the other rounds of England at the time, Egbert basically ended the dominance of Mircea and his victory at the Battle of London and at 25 on the kingdoms of Mircea and West sex than became allies which helped them resist the Vikings. It 53 bar grid of Mircea married ethyl Walt's daughter, Ethel swept serve but semantic relationships in at 25, Egbert sent ethyl wolf to evade the mercy and sub kingdom of Kent, and he drove out at sub King, bolded it 30 assets, sorry, on Sussex, all submitted to Egbert. So here's becoming the dominant political force, an Anglo-Saxon England. An ethyl Wolf was made King of Kent's with camping, a subsidiary kingdom to West x. It 38 Egbert to fate it an alliance of Cornish front of Vikings on Cornwell was then reduced to client kingdom, lesser kingdom that kind of fat and to a more powerful kingdom. It 51 F a wolf onto his second son, ethyl bolt, to f8 at the Vikings and the butler Eclair, and what the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle called the grid to slaughter of a haven reading army that we have heard tell of up to this present day. In it 58 F a wolf was succeeded by his eldest surviving some enabled as king of Wessex. And his next eldest son F Albert became King of Canada. So at that point, Kent and West sex, where two aligned but separate entities. F0 bulb died only two years later. Ethyl Bert, United Wessex on Kent. Let's talk about Alfred's experiences and Europe as a child. Because a lot of his learning and his thinking actually came from outside of England. Alfred was confirmed by Pope Leo the fourth and Rome. And at 55, he had been born at it 48 or nine. So he's a young child when he first finds himself in Minot, Europe and Rome. He had accompanied his father on a pilgrimage to Rome, and he spent time while he was in the continent. The court of Charles the Bold, king of the Franks, from it 54 to 855, which was going to be a bit of an influence on high. He fought the Vikings later on their return. And at 56, Alfred's brother ethical deposed our father. Can you imagine what bad failing buck calls within the family? But to avert on all light Civil War retained ethics and ethics rules. The East. When EPA Wolfe died and at 58, where sex was ruled by three of Alfred's brothers in succession as we've heard, ethyl bald, ethyl Burt, and ethyl rat. During the reigns of the first to, the Vikings arrived to conquer the four kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England, which were Wessex, Mircea, Northumbria, and East. Andrea. Alfred's brother ethyl read became king at only IT teams. So he's pictured here to the right looking a lot older, but a king has to look distinguished with a beard doesn't date. Alfred was given the unprecedented title of secondaries heir apparent by Bishop officer. That title hadn't been given in Anglo-Saxon England before, but it was common for the Swedes and the Franks to appoint an heir apparent. The wet on the advising console, literally meaning the wise ones. The knowing one's may have felt it was a good idea to ensure the succession case. Ethyl read file and bottle it 68. Alfred thought alongside ethyl rat and a failed attempt to read neighboring Mircea of I-bar, the boneless. There were some grit epithets around that time in history. But this poor gentleman was possibly known as the boneless because he had some kind of awful disease of the bones. His tree damping either Rogerson. The Vikings invaded West 67 day on a series of battles and sued the Anglo-Saxons had some victories, but they were mostly defeated. Ethyl Rog died shortly after the Anglo-Saxon defeat at the Battle of Martin, which could have been Martin and wheelchair or Martin endorsements. But somewhere in the kingdom of Wessex. Ethyl red hot to underage sons, ethyl, ethyl worlds. But yet Alfred succeeded him escape. And why was that? Well, the brothers had met a witness to agreement at swim they arc. We don't know where that is in modern day terms. That whichever of them outlived the other would inherit the property left by King APA wolf to his sons. The deceased son's would inherit whatever lands their father had chosen to give them any additional lands not provided by Apple wealth thought their uncle had acquired. And it was implied, and this agreement, though not directly standard, that the surviving brother would also inherit the throne. Alfred succession was probably uncontested J to this agreement, but also due to the fact that there was a real threat from the Vikings on their hunts bait continuity. The kingdom of Western Han to get on with defending themselves against the Vikings. Alfred on the Vikings, here is an interesting topic. Alpha was actually defeated by the Vikings and may at 71, and he was forced to make terms with them. And Bishop records the Vikings a grade to leave where sex and dead. So f Alfred was a loser. Why would he get what he wanted? Well, the answer is that he probably paid them to leave. And they did. They went and spent winter and mercy. For the next five years they occupied other aparts of Anglo-Saxon England and left Alfred's kingdom alone. But it 76 they attacked and occupied Warum, endorse it. Alfred blockade of them, but he was unable to capture the time. He negotiated peace terms and cleaning the exchange of hostages on oaths with the Vikings swearing on a holy ring secret to their god Thor, from whom we get the word Thursday. Thursdays named after Thor. They broke the oaths, killed the hostages and sculpted, Oh dear. They went to exit or brilliant plants, etc. Actually, while I was recording this video, I worked like that. The Vikings pretty much invaded all my most favorite places to spend time and England. So if I ever did a tour of places that the Vikings had invaded, I probably have a pretty great time anyway, that's by the bike. So they've gone to exit our Alpha and blockheads their ships there, their relief fleet to have been scattered by a storm and they were forced to submit on, withdrew to Mircea. In January it 70th, the Viking suddenly attack chip at him. I used to live one village up from Chip and I'm chipping them as a grid plus, sorry, I'm going off on a tangent again. Alfred had spent Christmas and tympanum. Suddenly in January the Vikings launched an attack. We are told, and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle that most of the people were killed except the King Alfred. And he was a little band made his way by wooden swap. And after Easter he made afford an attorney. And the marshes of Somerset from that fort kept fighting against the vote. Basically, he'd goes on the run and gatherers, a few people run. Tim's the kind of stuff that movies are made up. From here. Alfred monitored our resistance campaign, rallying militias from Somerset, wheelchair on Hampshire. The other kingdoms had all fallen to the Vikings and we're not resisting where sex on Alfred were left standing alone against the Vikings at once and tied what's inside, sorry, notice Pentecost and the modern Christian calendar. Alfred wrote to Egbert stone, ace of salvage. There was of course, symbolism and the debt chosen and less Salford as NIH part of frame. I've been to some amazing gigs and frame, sorry. He was met by all the people of Somerset out of wheelchair, out of that part of Hampshire, which is on this side of the state, and they rejoiced to see him. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle tells us, and I'm sure that they dead rejoice to say him because the Vikings were a very real threat and he really was their only hope needed the Fed's of those Shires, I'm thirds where local militias of man loyal to their lords, who were alderman, who were very senior nobleman, a bit like jokes or royal raves, who were wealthy landowners loyal to the king, and fans who were nobles. Alfred, one of the sites of victory at the Battle of Addington, possibly fought near Westbury and wheelchair. And then the tide begins to turn against the Vikings. He pursued the Vikings back to chip in them and laid siege to their strongholds until they were starved into submission. What are the terms of surrender was that there later go through them, convert to Christianity. Three weeks later the Danish king go through them and 29 of his chiefs were baptized at alphas court near Alpha, linked with goods from becoming Alfred spiritual son or his God's Son, and taking the Anglo-Saxon name Athelstan, he has basically completely neutralized as a threat Alfred. The bonds go through them to himself. The Treaty of web more required the newly christened bathroom to leave where sex and returned to ace and glia. In 1879, the Viking army left hip and I'm, I went to Sarah ancestor. The formal treaty that Alfred's and go through them signed wasn't scientists slightly later. You can actually see it in Corpus Christi College in Cambridge. It was negotiated and it's 79 or when King Kayla was the second of mercy, he was deposed. Him being a bit like a puppet king for the Vikings. The treaty gave alpha par over the mercy and City of London. And it's meant, so he was quite literally making money. Alfred succeeded to kale wolf Slavs and Western mercy and grace from incorporated the eastern areas and to aced idea that turned into a parcel of land but became known as the Dan law. The part of England that was under control. Some of ASX was also ceded to the dance. Get through Maths, we said was no longer a threat to their worst small skirmishes, little Viking reds and they at seven days, but nothing on the scale of what had come before. Let's talk a little bit about Alfred's international reputation because we've seen what he has been doing at home around this time. It at E3, Marina's exempted the socks and quarter and Rome from taxation, possibly due to Alfred's promised to send annual arms to Rome. He is ingratiating himself and the wider European community. This may be the origin of the medieval tax known as painters pence. The Pope sent Alfred gifts and cleaning our reputed piece of the True Cross. Know I end the later medieval period. There was an obsolete fad for Relic collecting, but here in the early medieval period, religious relic was still a very, very precious thing. To be given. A piece of the True Cross was really according Alfred or grit on her. Let's talk by Alfred's development of that van, abandoned town, London. Alfred reoccupied London onset ICT to make it habitable. And he gave oversight of the city to his son-in-law, ethyl rat, who was Lord of mercy and some married ethyl flipped, as we saw. The restoration of London took place throughout the rest of the airways. And it included things like unused street plan, new for, new fortifications and addition to the Roman walls, which you can see pictured here at the bottom right, I'm possibly matching fortifications and the south bank of the tabs. So I think there's a great place to hang out as well. Chroniclers are great. This is the period in which Anglo-Saxons of pre unification England submitted to Alfred goods from died and it Eddie it and power hungry Danish Lords vide for his place. Alphas years of pace from the Vikings were about to come to an end. The return of the Vikings in it, 92 or 93, the dance cross to England and 330 ships. So that's a massive and wedding party which was divided into two divisions, are larger one on a smaller one. They brought their wives and children with them, which suggested that they plan to settle. The larger division landed at Apple door, the smaller at Milton, both of which are in Kent. I have a dance and Apple door broke out to the Northwest and were overtaken by Alfred son AdWords, who defeated them at the Battle of Barnum. And sorry, they took refuge on an island near thorny and the river code where they were blockaded, I'm forced to give up postage is on leave West sex. From there they went to aspects where they were defeated at that inflates on joined the other Viking division led by Huston and shrubbery. On his way to relieve adword a thorny, Alfred learned that the Vikings were attacking Exeter. He turned westward unrest, the sage of Exeter. Huston's force marched up the Thames Valley and were met by the three grid, a alderman or jigs of Mircea wheelchair on Somerset. So they failed to break the Anglo-Saxon line. The Vikings then dashed across England and occupied the ruined form a Roman city of Chester. Because let's remember the Vikings oligo to cool and beautiful places. That seems the English did not want to attempt to block head and winter. They destroyed all the supplies in the area and starved the dance until they had to retire to ASX. They then fortify themselves north of London or the Vikings did, drawing their ships up the Thames, River Lea. Later that year, Alfred find a way to block the river and we're going to talk about his strategy of blocking rivers a little bit later. It 96 or 97, the Vikings give up their struggle with Alfred's. Some retired to Northumbria, some went to East and glia and some left again for mainland Europe. Alpha is pretty famous for military reorganization which helped him to defeat the Vikings under the ferric system, which was in place before he became king. All Freeman were required to give military service. Those who refused were heavily find I'm fast confiscation of their land according to laws that have been initiated by King Anna and around 694. So there were a couple of centuries old. Alpha perceived that the system on the tactics that he had inherited actually benefited the Vikings because they tended to send small red parties, raiding parties, rather than risk losing plunder and a major full-scale bottle. What they did was they scouted the head for easy targets and they had secret bases so that they could attack these targets and then retreat to safety. They fortify their basis with ditches, ramparts on policies and policies are wooden or iron spiked. Fed says these business were all stopped to help them through a sage so that they could launch contra toxic from the basis. The Anglo-Saxons tended to attack and a shield wall as pictured here, very like the Romans. They weren't really set up for the kind of tactics stop. Vikings were coming in with. The third system, also minute time-consuming to gather the National Militia, you had to go write each area, gathering all the cards individually. By the time communications having sent and received on supplies gathered, whole areas would have been devastated by the Vikings. Some local landowners also couldn't be confidant, be loyal on sided with good thrum and 970th. As we mentioned before, Alfred drew on the knowledge he gained during his stay with Charles the Bald and the way that he had dealt with the Vikings when it came time for him to defend his own kingdom against the Vikings. And he extended the system of fortifications known as varargs from pre biking Mircea. And Heiberg is hears about BU RJ. It can also be spelled BU RH. And from that we get the term Barra. The Berg's became borrows such as page of Birra, Edinburgh. I'm sure you can think of a lot of boroughs in England. He also created a new system of defense. He faced the Viking, said it 92 with a Mobile Field Army having tackled the ferret system network of Berg's on a fleet of ships capable of navigating rivers on esterase, which was likely to be the places where bottles would be fought rather than off the coast. Alpha reform, the taxation system in order to support these reforms on the walls, entirely popular with his nobles. And the heart worked was, there was a thing called a height. And a Hyde was the amount of land necessary to support one family. Landowners had to supply footmen on resources to help build fortresses, repair bridges. Depending on how many heights they happen to own. The new network of 33 bags were built 30 kilometers apart or by 19 miles apart. This enabled the military to confront talk attacks anywhere in the kingdom within a day. So yes, it costs a lot. But at how pretty effective results, Berg's weren't all the same. They range from small light posts to very large force, the largest of which was Winchester. Many marks straddled a river with a fourt on each side and the monitor, those that Charles the Bold about. So the Anglo-Saxons could then block the river. The Vikings had to pass under a garrison bridge between the two fourths with guards, with armed with spares on arrows which could be thrown down at them, effectively blocking their roots at three ight England, that was a clever tactic. The bursts where connected by roads for army known as hair paths. This road system threatened Viking roots on communication. The Vikings strategy of rapid attacks meant that they were not equipped to besiege the barracks because they were used to sort of a quick and they didn't have the equipment or provisions allow them to basically run a sage. So if they tried to starve out a bar, how it would come from another one or the Army would arrive. The system was revolutionary, but as noted before, many nobles bulked up the cost, the demands that are placed on. When it came to naval reforms, they weren't entirely as successful. At first other Alfred did learn from his mistakes. He had ordered long ships with 60 orders, which were twice the size of Viking ships. The Victorians believed that this was the birth of the English navy. It was not because where sex had actually had a flights before this time. It's possible that having received a classical education from Bishop ASA, Alfred use the Greco-Roman design of high sided chips, which were made for warfare rather than for travel. So they weren't meant to go long distances. His ships were basically just too large to maneuver well in rivers and esterase, I'm not sweat bottles happen to be thought. So he thought having something big and scary was the way to go, but actually big and scary means not very maneuverable. 1960s it 96. As an example of this, Alfred's nine chips, his fleet of nine, were sent to block the Viking ships from escaping after a ridge. So if the West Saxon is lashed their ships to the Viking ships on board their ships, slaughtering many members of the Viking crews. Only one of the six Viking ships actually survived this land battle. Nsaid and Alfred ships where banked when the tide went died because they were big and heavy. And the Vikings escaped and they're smaller, faster vessels. Although overall, the vikings lost 120 man on the Saxons, only 60 to the ships were too damaged to sail. Ron's are two row sorry, because they would've been rode with ores around suspects and two were actually driven against the Sussex coast. The crews of these two ships were summoned to appear before Alfred at Winchester and hind. Legal reforms. The doom book, that's a very imposing tight like something we might get a movie night. It just means your doom as in your judgment against you for having committed certain crimes. In the lit, it, possibly the early 90s, offered issued the doom book, which was a book of laws of building on those of his predecessors. Kink in it a WebEx. Well, when I say building on them, he didn't really like olive king in his laws. He tells us in the introduction, I ordered to be written, many of the ones that our forefathers observed, those that pleased me, and many of the ones that did not please me. I rejected with the advice of my counselors and commanded them to be observed in a different way. He appended, rather than integrated in his laws, basically stuck them into an appendix as, as an example of what had gone before. So within these laws there were scales of compensation, financial compensation for injury to various body parts. So the next time you see an ad on TV that says, have you recently had an accident. King offered was part of coming up with what would later be the civil law system where people can't see applied. A fifth of the book is Alfred's introduction. I'm translation of the Ten Commandments chapters from the book of Exodus, 1523 to 29, where Barnabas and Paul are sent to the church as trustworthy messages with Rosa bite diets and they have various rules to be followed. So these are not an anti way secular. These laws, this is very much a Christian Lubbock as Alfred sees it. The introduction is basically a meditation on Christian law, and it draws parallels with God giving the law to Moses and offered giving laws to the English people. So it's that this kind of idea of the divine right of kings, Alfred's par comes from God himself. The code has a 120 chapters because Moses died at the age of 120. And the Bible, in medieval biblical symbolism, the number a 128 stands for law. In his introduction that he explains his thinking about Christ came not to shatter our analemma commandments, but to fulfill them. And he taught mercy and make this, this mercy underpinned the compensation system so that if you injured somebody's hands, instead of having your own hand chopped off, you would instead give some money. Treachery to our Lord though, could not be compensated financially. It was the ultimate crime. A subject must love his Lord as he should love Christ himself. This was Alfred's extension of love your neighbor as yourself on underscored the Anglo-Saxon attitude to lordship, which we see in Beowulf in the Battle of malls and a lot of their literature, the idea of lordship was sacrosanct. The doom pick is more an ideology of kingship rather than a practical logbook. The historian packed with wearable described as designed more for symbolic impact them practical direction. It's kind of very Hegel difficulty to read. It's not sort of clear. Sections where we can find cite rules on theft in one place. Rosa and murder. And another is, it's very sort of hodgepodge. Also tells us that Alfred personally reviewed decisions made by his algebra on raise carefully looking at the judgments which were passed in his absence anywhere in the realm to see whether they were just or unjust. So as a personality, he was keenly interested in the concept of justice. Offered was also famous for his educational reforms, the headaches, when the public saw Viking reds as a punishment from God, Alfa began to promote education on religious learning, to be seen to be appeasing. Gods. Hate recruited clerical scholars from Mircea whales on from abroad, my clerical scholars because learning walls, basically the province of the charge at that point in history and manuscripts were med and churches. It was the discharge that taught Greek and Latin, for example. He established a CT school to educate his own children and those of the nobility, as well as promising boys on only boys of lower rank as well. He required literacy of those who held public office. And if only that was still a thing, sorry. He ordered the translation into vernacular English, what we now refer to as Old English of Latin works he considered most necessary for men to know. And these included things like the dialogues of Gregory, the grit and Gregory's pastoral care. Gregory having of course, being a pope, he compiled a chronicle of his kingdom on heist with a genealogy going back to Adam. So basically he's tracing his dissent right from God and the pointing on his divinely ordained position. He initiated Ecclesiastes reform, appointing bishops, abbots. Now the church was a hugely powerful institution within society. If he's appointing its leaders, that mixed him the ultimate par, he hi, ever dead believe himself responsible for the spiritual welfare of his subjects. He didn't at all seen his role as secular. He believed that he was responsible for being a Christian king of a Christian country. He was a pious man, but he did expropriate church lands near the border with a deadline and gave them to fans he felt might better defend them against the Vikings. Manuscript production that England was greatly reduced during the Viking raids of the, it's six days on many manuscripts burned with a churches that highs them. We've seen in another video that the Vikings tended to just go into monasteries, slaughter the bunk, set fire to the place on left all the treasures, manuscripts very much where treasures, they were made with costly eggs and it wasn't like high. We might print something today where we just turn our printer on and off you go. Make a manuscript was backbreaking work. It might take a year to make one. They were beautifully eliminated. They were met with vellum or chi height to scratch the beautifully colored writing into the chi hide. It was actually a very, a difficult job on something you couldn't do. If it was likely that the Vikings might turn up during the night. The creation of manuscripts actually didn't resume until the nineties. Let's talk about the death on barriers, plural of canal threat. Alfred died on the 26th of October, 199 HDT either 50 or 51. The cause of death is unknown, but from ulcers description of his symptoms that may have been Crohn's disease or hemorrhoids. And his grandson came address Oxley have a similar illness. He had ordered a grand family mausoleum in the new med strand, Winchester, which was bank belts, but it was unfinished at the time of his death, he was temporarily buried. And the old monster with his wife, ALL swift and his son Edward the elder. Their bodies were moved to the Newman's to 903. The new Minister was destroyed and replaced after the Norman conquest because the Normans had a tendency to replace Anglo-Saxon holy sites with their own cathedrals. Amongst high ever moved the bodies of Alfred on his family to hide ABE, which is pictured here and the modern day to the right. In 1536, during Henry the ants dissolution of the, the monasteries, there was real bad feeling against the church and hideout. Abby was badly vandalized. And 1530 it, it was completely demolished and uses a query. So the gravestones of Alfred and his family ended up underground. They were uncovered a, more than a couple of centuries later and 1788, what about of convex were sent to prepare the grind to build a jail. Concepts unfortunately broke the coffins into pieces on so the lab I contained on the bones where scattered. 66 after an amateur excavation, which didn't go terribly well, the local vicar managed to gather together some of the bones and buried them in an unmarked grave. January 2014, a fragment of pelvis from 1999 excavation of set unmarked grave was radiocarbon dated to the right periods to be offered or AdWord, but we're still waiting to find out the identity of this bone. Obviously after the discovery of the body of Richard the third, hunting for famous historical kings. The kings, something that people were interested in doing. But we have yet to be sure that we have find the body of King Alfred. 9. Aethelflaed Lady of the Mercians: We are not going to talk about Alfred's daughter, F A-flat Lady of the mercy and night. She was what we might like to think of an orange as a warrior queen. You'll find her referred to as a warrior queen and popular culture and in certain literature. But she was so much more than that. Yes, she was a warrior on a military leader. She was also a great tactician on she was a bit of a public relations expert as well. Her public relations expertise as shown by this portrayal of her by Henry of Huntington, written in the 12th century. Remember Henry at Huntington was the guy that gave us the story of Cain connotes trying to turn back the tide. He writes in her heroic elf later, grit and Marshall FIM, a man and a woman though and NAM, the war-like hosts they niche or two obeyed, conquer or both. The borne by sex amid, changed BY, by name, such honor, triumph spring, a queen by titled, but indeed HHS, a king. Heroes before the mercy and heroin equalled Caesar himself to when such glory failed. She's really being begged up here as the warrior queen. And it's basically saying she was so good and bottle and smaller that she might as well have been a man obviously doesn't sit very well with us and to our modern heirs. But it reinforces the in the medieval period. This was a very unusual thing to have a woman who was a military leader and followed by man was something that wall's not common. Here is another description of F A-flat from William of moles Ray, who was an Anglo Norman chronicler. No real need to be kind of like the Anglo-Saxons, but he wrote, but she was a powerful accession to AdWords parting her brothers ran the delight of his subjects, the drabs of his enemies, a woman of enlarged soul. So she's the draft of his animates. This idea of her being fearsome and battle here you see her depicted with swords and spares as a very common image of her, but also that she had an enlarged so let she was a spiritual women. And that was something that was very much batter added in the medieval period. As the daughter of Alfred the Great F A-flat have been born into the royal heights of Wessex. And in West sex, royal women were not alive. A political rule. Elsewhere, F A-flat mother hadn't been given the title of Queen and she never witnessed chargers. Unlike her daughter and MRSA. Mrsa Alfred sister Ethel Swift had married King Barbara, and she was actually recognized as queen there, and she was able to witness charters on she made land grants jointly with her husband. So there was a different culture they're on women wear able to hold more par. We should really look at Mircea. And I've written here English Mircea at the part of the garcia under Anglo-Saxon control. Because at that point in history, some of it belonged to the Vikings. But under the Anglo-Saxon control was Gloucestershire, was to assure Hereford share and structure. So that was the part of the world, but F A-flat ended up ruling. She lived from its seven-day until the 12th of June, 1918. And she wrote Marsha alone after her husband died from a bite, 911 until her death on the title she had was Mark not collided Liddy of the mercy ends. She was of course the daughter of alpha, the grid on elsewhere. And she was wife of ethyl read, Lord of the merchants. My ethyl rat became Lord of mercy. And after Kao Wolf, who we've talked about previously, the puppet king controlled by the Vikings, walls, deposed and his lands carved up. And we don't know an awful lot by Ethel read or his lineage are where he sprang up from. He may have been a bit of an opportunist, according to some historians, but he becomes Lord of the Martians. Though he acknowledges Alfred as his overlord. F A-flat of which mentioned before as very much known for her military expertise, her support of the church, and also the support of her brother edward, the elders regime and Wessex. So he's really Wessex, she's really Mircea. They are a family to be reckoned with. So let's talk a little bit. But Mircea, after Alfred, and we know that Alfred was actually king of West x, but his life and times had some impact on MRSA, as well as we've seen after Alfred's victory at Addington and 70th, the part of Mircea that was under Anglo-Saxon rather than Viking control came under ethyl Red's Rule. Ethyl reds began to r2 Mircea after kale Wolf was deposed out. And we don't really know an awful lot about ethyl, read what his ancestry was, where he came from, why he had a right to rule. He's a bit of an antibiotic figure in that way, but he accepted Alfred as overlord. Alfred cementite religions with Marsha out with epilepsy by marrying him to ethyl flat. And the, it, it is an ethyl read was actually a lot older than ethyl flat. Imagine that that's such a par couple of them isn't an ethyl RAB NFO flat, like pass the port F A-flat. Certainly will GO the source. Ethyl read quite a conversation there, but I digress. So ethyl rat, I'm Edward thought renewed Viking attacks and they, it nine days. F A-flat an ethyl read to gather fortified WR. They also financially supported mercy and churches and built an API at Gloucestershire. So being part of the fight against the Vikings and getting in with the church, a big feature of their joint ran. Ethernets health though, began to decline. And it's possible that F. A-flat was the de facto ruler of Marsha from a bite and 900 to Edward the elder succeeded Alfred's and at 99 on ten years later and 90 $0.09 a West socks and immersive enforce to read the Northern deadlock. They returned with the romance of the Northumbrian, sent Oswald F of that hot and tired and the new men start Gloucester, which she and her husband had felt. This was a public relations triumph because sent Oswald was one of the founders of Anglo-Saxon Christianity. And remember, the church was a very powerful force and Anglo-Saxon society. Also he was a royal since this association is very good for F A-flat and ethyl red. F A-flat and ethyl rad raised Edwards son and heir Athelstan and their court on Athelstan was actually sent to them by Alfred's so that he could be well educated. And chroniclers at the time commented that he was very well-educated at F A-flat and ethyl radical court. You can see ethyl stands tomb to the bottom right. I know that seems a little macabre, but by looking at the tomb statute, we can get a fair idea of what he might have actually looked like. Ethel red eventually died in 911, and F A-flat became the official ruler of mercy at the leery of the mercy and the accession of a female ruler is described by the historian and Walker as one of the most unique events in early medieval history. We don't have an awful lot of female rulers that we know of from that time. Actually, F A-flat past the throne onto her daughter elf winner when she died. We're going to hear a little bit about that in a moment. When ethyl red dyed, Edward took control of London on Oxford's quite major habitations. But FFF probably can save it to this and return for recognition as the ruler of Mersa. So we have the sister really mercy on the brother ruling WebEx. This is the Anglo-Saxon par, family. F of that, as we mentioned, pass the throne to her daughter, who actually only rent from June to December 1918 before being deposed by her uncle Edward the elder. They actually carried her off to West x. We're not completely sure, but it seems quite likely that she entered holy orders, spent the rest of her life as a man. Frank Stanton, the historian has commented of F A-flat, that it was through reliance on her guardianship of Mircea that her brother was unable to begin the forward movement against the southern dance. That whilst the outstanding feature of his ran, he needed her where she was. He obviously didn't have the same kind of relationship or plants the same kind of fifth. And when. So let's talk about F A-flat and ethyl rads relationship with the church, which was going to be a very important factor in the rim of an early medieval par couple. Ethyl fat. I'm Ethel read granted the church at WR a half share of the rights of lordship, which meant that the church got a half share of the land rents from the money that people have paid into the justice system, for example. In return, the cathedral was to dedicate a song to them three times daily, add a mass and 30 sounds on Saturdays. Now that might sound a bit strange to modern sensibility. And perhaps we might have a tendency to say, wow, they must have done this for some kind of spiritual reason, believing that it got them closer to heaven. That may be true, but it was also a public relations triumph and other public relations triumph and that there wasn't Facebook in those days. So hi, did you stay in people's minds? How did you stay in the public consciousness? Hydrogen come across as centrally and a benefactor of the city. Well, this is high, you did it. We've mentioned before the F A-flat is really Holland's it PR woman. In 904, Bishop warfarin, we're starting to give F A-flat and ethyl read valuable land, which included land on the city's river frontage, which they were able to monetize pretty well. They were able to dominant the city politically and also profit from it. F0 flat, as we mentioned before, is famous as a warrior create queen and for her military rule. That's looking at that in a bit more depth. She's described in some documents as having lad expeditions, what she planned. So she doesn't just sand people liked to do her work. She is recorded as actually having been present at some battles, and you'll quite often see her depicted with a sword in her hand, how much she got involved and the nitty-gritty of actually fighting people, I would say, is questionable. But in 900 to the Vikings were expelled from Dublin, made a failed attempt to attack whales. When they left Ireland. They then asked APA flat for permission to settle near Chester. She agreed on for a time there was pace, but ban the Norse Vikings joined the dens to attack Chester. But F A-flat being no Fu had already fortified at not having completely trusted them. She unethical read, convinced the Irish who were fighting alongside the Vikings to change sides. So F A-flat after this refund or Chester as a bar, she learned a lot from her father's military thinking. She's believed to have enhanced its Roman defenses with new walls that ran to the river day. So she's following the pattern set for her by Alfred, the grid. In the 1910s, F A-flat and her brother Edward's extended offers network of bars they had seen what was the effect of way to fight the Vikings? Nine-twelfths she boat defenses at bridged north to cover a crossing of the River Severn. So again, her father's thinking of we have to block the rivers is coming through. 913, She vote for it. So Tom worth and Stafford to guard against the dance. So she's she's very strategic and the places that she chooses to four to 5914, she raised mercy and army from Gloucestershire and Hereford and repelled a Viking and vision at a spray WHO for it, which was an Iron Age fort, was repaired to protect against a Viking envision that might come via Northumbria or Cheshire. On Warwick was fortified against the dance Leicester, so she's protecting her kingdom on every side. N9 17 F A-flat sent an army to capture Darby, and that was the first of the five boroughs of the dead law to fall to the Anglo-Saxons. This was a military triumph for F A-flat. For what she is still remembered. The Dan's and last are surrounded with item fights. The Vikings in New York also surrendered to her, possibly to secure her support against the Norse Vikings, but she died before she could receive their oaths of filter. Let's talk about the death and burial of F. A-flat even. And her dad, She's thinking about public relations. So F A-flat died on the 12th of June, 1918 at Tamworth. Not exactly sure what her cause of death was, but her body was carried for 75 miles, whereas she was buried alongside her husband at some Oswald's meant STR and Gloucester, which they had how the belt. She was buried near the bones of the sense. And as we've mentioned before, he was a very important scent associated with the birth of Christianity in England and also with royalty. This managed her unimportant queens be lying there they bones of assent. Gloucester was also close to Wessex, emphasizing her dissent from Alfred the Great, the royal house of WebEx. But it is not allowed over which her brother had Sway. So she's not subordinate to anybody. She is the queen. She was succeeded, as we said before, by her daughter alpha1, who only ran it until December, I was deposed by aggravate elder, that band United West x and Mircea. But the people of mercy at we're not completely supportive of the Union. There was actually a mercy inversion of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle around the time. So they're trying to keep a sort of unique culture going. Let's talk about depicted in history. Here she is pictured from the BBC TV program, the last kingdom, which I'm going to admit I've only seen the first two episodes of so far. I can't really comment on high of a depict F A-flat. But the BBC did a brilliant program recently called the children of alpha, the grid. I'm not sure if it's still on iPlayer. You might catch it on YouTube, but I'll try and see if I can find the link to it because it really was very good. Anyway, F A-flat is hardly mentioned and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, some historians argue that that's because AdWord didn't want to encourage mercy and separatism. By venerating the achievements of his sister. There is a mercy and equivalent to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which I mentioned before. And that's where we get most of our records of her ran. The annals of Ulster. This is an Ulster accents speaking to you at the moment, Northern Ireland. But the annals of Ulster call her pharmacist cinema. Regina sacks on as the most renowned socks and queen. 10. The Venerable Bede: So let's talk about an Anglo-Saxon who was not a king or a warrior but a monk. One of the most famous of the Anglo-Saxons, in fact famous throughout Europe, and that is Bait. Bait lived from 673 to 785. He's known as the venerable bait, bait and bade the vulnerable and the epithet vulnerable was first used a bitumen the ninth century, so not during his lifetime. He is known as the father of English history. So we can't have an English history course on not mentioned Bede. He was an author and historian, a teacher, a scholar, a linguist, and a translator. And he was able to be all these things because he was also a monk. His name comes from the old English verb Baden to bed or to command. He was a monk at the monastery of some Pedra and Northumbria other he also worked and was buried at its companion monastery of St. Paul. Today, those two monasteries together are known as the Avi of Monk, where I'm with Jarrow, which is in tying and where he entered the monastery at the age of seven onto the abbot kale breath. In 686, I plague struck and killed most of the local population. Other bait on Kao Frith survived, lived pretty much his entire life in the monastery, but he did travel the visit other models, strains on. He visited dignitaries such as the Archbishop of New York. New York didn't become an archbishop break until the year thought they died. So he would just be the bishop at the time. And King Kayla Wolf of Northumbria, who was a supporter of Bates academic work. His most famous work is The Ecclesiastical History of the English people and thought as the oldest surviving historical text in English. He wrote extensively, he wrote Biblical commentaries, he wrote theology, he wrote mathematics, and he wrote textbooks and books and tangent for the classroom. And he was well-known for his skill and competence, which was the calculation of deaths and actually his calculation of the date of Easter, whilst controversial. And the English church. He also helped popularize the practice of getting things from the breath of Christ, a system known as Anno Domini. You may see the air size 686, written 686 AD or 686 CE, the common era. But it basically goes back to the same thing we're dating from the year that Christ was born. We are still using a system to which bait contributed today. Many historians consider him the most important scholar of antiquity for the period between the death of Pope Gregory the first 600 for the coronation of Charlemagne and at hundreds. So he's not only important in the history of England, he is important in the history of Europe. It obtained 99 many centuries after his death, pope Leo the 13th declared paid a Doctor of the Church, meaning someone who's studied in the field of theology, advanced thinking and not area on the understanding of the church. And beta is actually the only net of Englishman to ever received this designation. They'd met the Latin and Greek writings of the early church accessible to the Anglo-Saxons are those Anglo-Saxons who could read, who were most often associated with the Church, but he was a gifted linguist and translator. His monastery boasted unimpressive library, including works by Eusebius, who wasn't a historian of Christianity on a rosy us who was a theologian on their styles are evident and his own Ecclesiastical History of the English people. What we know about bathe himself and a bite his life comes from the last chapter of the Ecclesiastical History of the English people, which was completed around 731 when he was 59 years old. Let's talk a little bit about his background and youth. Bait himself tells us he was born in the grind to the monastery. Actually appears in the list of kings of lenses dating from a rind at 100. And so that suggests the bait came from a noble family. At the age of seven. He was sent as a poor black boy, dedicated to the service of God, to be educated by Benedict Biscop and later cal Frith, who was a cent. And as we've seen, abbot of Monk, where I'm of Jarrow. It wasn't unusual for unknowable or well-off family to do this. They often have a lot of children, one last month to fade. Also at cat them in with the church, which was a powerful institution and ensured that bade would get the best education available at the time in the life of kale for us getting from Iran 710. We hear that after the plague of 686, only two months we're capable of singing the officers. One was kale for himself and the other a young student who was almost certainly fate, who was known for his singing voice as well. When paid was 17, the abbot of Iona, Adam then visited on possibly inspired beads and trust and the Easter data controversy, which he was interested in for the rest of his life. Was our Dan's of daikon at the tender age of 19 and around 692. So the canonical edge for the ordination of a daikon. Was 25. So one of two things may have been going on there. Either his superiors on his parents thought he was exceptional or people didn't really pay attention to the room. A byte edge. He became a priest edge 38 and he was already amongst, you may be asking well, why the entity become appraised as well? While priests could do things that most couldn't, for example, they could serve the sacraments, they could lead holy communion and certain other offices. Bade wrote his first works and the year 701 on those where they are to metric or the art of metrics and schemata bus at Tropez on figures on tropes. So very mathematical, unintended for the classroom. But he continued to write for the rest of his life, completing 60 bucks, most of which survive night writing a book in Anglo-Saxon England, as we've mentioned before, it was not a matter of just scribbling on a page. You were at Ching letters with costs, the NX and to velum or chi height. And it was actually very, very difficult work. It could take months or up to a year to write a book. So this was really a life's work. He may also have worked on the lots and Bibles which were transcribed at Jarrow. Anti-women, an accomplished singer, as we've mentioned before. And he could recite poetry in the vernacular and Anglo-Saxon, which added to the oral literary tradition of the time he was passing on those tails. Bade was no stranger to control for say, during his life, his computation of the date of Easter. Wealth at odds with the rest of the English church. Easter was celebrated within the Jewish lunar calendar, and you had to work out what its debt should be within the solar calendar used by the Anglo-Saxons. I'm, that was no easy task and there was much discussion about high mathematically this can be achieved because remember they didn't know as much about astronomy as VJ noise. So computing deaths was a difficult process. He was actually accused of heresy over his estimation of the edge of the world at the time of the birth of Christ. He got annoyed about this and wrote a letter to bishop Wilfred, the drunken monks who had accused him, explaining his stance because they have drunk and quite a lot went when they said this. Basically the bait Wilson to fan of Bishop welfare which comes across and the Ecclesiastical History of the English people. Beta of course, as among can taken a VEI of poverty and lived a very simple life. Whereas Bishop boyfriend had a very extravagant lifestyle which bade didn't really appreciate. One of beads most famous writings as his death song, which he is said to have composed on his deathbed. It's actually the most carpet Anglo-Saxon poem. It's fine to the byte 45 manuscripts, although not all of these attributed to beat and it's fine and several different dialects of Old English, including Northumbrian, his native dialect. Here is a little quote from it. For 998 UI Folks, not Tara than him. Say, Hey, Helen, has Hindi on the guy who his gas dicot eyes. If lies after death, diarrhea, dome, it may just sound like I'm really drunk there, but actually I have a master's degree and Anglo-Saxon literature. Pronunciation of Anglo-Saxon words does vary. I would like to add a modern English translation would be before they enforced walk, none comes to be wise to malice more than him, but must with mindfulness, think back before his going vents, oh, what has breaths, bad, good, right, or evil after death days and on judgment comes to be. Anglo-saxon poetry relies less on Rhyme. In fact, it doesn't really rhyme more on alliteration. So you can see Van him thoughts as there's alliteration there on gas die followed by God's eyes. And so that the translator here is tried to do the same thing him that must with mindfulness and think back before his going, hence, that kind of thing. So we've talked a little bit about beads, death, song. Bade actually died on the face of the ascension, which was the day that Christian celebrated the ascending and to have an off Jesus following His resurrection. That was the 26th of May 735. He died on the floor of his south, singing glory be to the Father, onto the sun, onto the Holy Spirit, which was sung by the angels and the Book of Revelation. So this is what he may have believed he would be singing and have an, after his death, his student Cuthbert detailed his last days, describing his final illness as frequent attacks of breathlessness with ICT pan. So some kind of respiratory disorder. Other apparently he could still sing a little. Before he died. He had his worldly goods such as they were distributed to his fellow monks, and those were pepper napkins on insects. And he was buried at Jarrow initially, although his bones were moved to Durham Cathedral and the 11th century in 1541, the tomb was later, and the remains were possibly moved to the Galilee Chapel in Durham Cathedral on so you can see a picture of the tomb of bait to the bottom-right. Let's talk a little bit. A byte has most famous work, The Ecclesiastical History of the English people or Historia occasion plastic, dentist and glory, or Historia ecclesiastic against this on gloriam. It was completed in 731, so only a few years before his death, he didn't write it alone. He was added by Albinus, who was abit of Augustine's API and counterbore. It contains references to many historical events, including a brief account of Christianity and Roman Britain, St. Augustine's mission to England and 597, the death of Gregory the grant and 604 on the conversion to Christianity of camp because the Pope had sent Augustine on a mission to camps. The first attempts to evangelize Northumbria, the console, the concept of width, was a big turning point and Anglo-Saxon history because they, king of Northumbria of the time, basically decided to follow Roman tradition. In all things religious, including calculating the data of Easter and the system of monasteries, rather than the Irish Catholic tradition of Iona, which is watch the English hard vein following up until that point. We also hear about the consecration of Theodore as Archbishop of Canterbury, and Wilfred attempts to evangelize Sussex. There is at the end of the book chapter which has an, a kind of beads day missionary work and freeze yeah, on the conflict around the data and of a star. So all things pertaining to bait himself. Kayla Wolf of Northumbria ordered an early copy where two of that in the preface. And that shows the support of the North on-brand monarchy for Bates work, not the church. And the motorcade throughout English history have sometimes been on the same page on sometimes not. But clearly we can say that the work of fate shores up the Christian king. 11. Sutton Hoo: One of the most exciting archaeological finds in British history, if not the most. Whilst the discovery of Anglo-Saxon treasures at a place called Sutton Hoo, which was basically the greatest treasure ever find in the UK. They find best kind of thing, the very famous helmet find at Sutton Hoo. Jewelry and belt clasps a shield. Here's another class but really beautiful metalwork made of gold. So the discoveries and Sutton Hoo tell us a lot about Anglo-Saxon culture and also a byte Anglo-Saxon art and something I bite their society. It was a treasure of a find and very many ways. Sutton, who is a site near Woodbridge and Suffolk, which has been excavated since 1930. It, it's famous for the discovery of an undisturbed Anglo-Saxon ship burial. Actually, Netflix has a movie at the moment starring refines called the DAG, which is a byte, the 1930's and 39 excavation. That's something that I really recommend that if you haven't seen it. Anyway. This find provided important information about the early Anglo-Saxon period, which was a period of Anglo-Saxon life that previously we didn't know a lot of bite The Kingdom of east IN glia. The site was initially excavated by bustle Brian on behalf of the landowner, political Edith protein. Others became involved when its importance became clear on the 1980's and 1980s, the wider area around someone who was excavated and umami burial sites were fond. The artifacts were the greatest treasure ever finds in the UK, as I mentioned before, this is like on a par with the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun. Basically. We've seen some of the arctic fox funds at Sutton Hoo, some of the most famous ones, but other artifacts and cleared, of course, the famous ceremonial helmet, which we've already seen. Golden jam and crust address that things, shield and swords. A liar, which shows that music was valued by the Anglo-Saxons. Silver plate from the Byzantine Empire, which shows that the Anglo-Saxon world was not isolated. There was links to the Byzantine Empire and also the eastern Mediterranean. And some of the fine it burial was reminiscent of the very famous old English poem Beowulf, which starts with the barrier of a Danish king and the ship burial of Bayer Woolf's own burial mound. The site overall had 20 minds which rise above the horizon when viewed from the opposite bank of the river debit. So that means that as people sail up and down the river, going a byte business on daily life, that these graves would've been very visible. So at a very high status thing to be buried in the cemetery at Sutton Hoo. There are two burial grounds and Sutton Hoo, older one under newer one, terabyte 1600 feet apart upstream. The National Trust Visitor Center has a reconstruction of the ship burial chamber, if ever you get a chance to visit it. The word Sutton equals Southern farmstead. And oh, the English and the word who means a hill shaped like a healed spare. So very specific ship of hill. East and glia was one of the first places to be settled by the Anglo-Saxons. So before the discovery of something who there was a big gap in the knowledge of the early stages of Anglo-Saxon England out of the kingdom of east IN glass. So this was an important find in furnishing and permission or by both those things. So we believe the symmetry at someone who was used between 575625 at the time that the cemetery was being created, the river Devin would have been used for training and transportation. So this is a busy area. Settlements of various sizes grew up along the river. So the local aristocracy held court at larger administrative centers. On many archaeologists believe that Sutton, who was one of these centers, those buried at Sutton, who were buried with objects suggesting considerable wealth on status, as you've probably already imagined. The earliest burials may have been the commission barriers that were fined and the symmetry. Here we see three. Sutton who basically Edith party who owned the farm of Sutton, who owned the land, wanted fossil Brown, who was a local archaeologist. He wasn't what you would call an amateur archaeologists, but he was self-taught. He didn't follow traditional methods basically. But she wanted him to start excavating at mine one, but it had been disturbed by grave robbers in the Middle Ages and in agreement with Ipswich museum, he began at minds 234. My three contains a man on a horse placed on a wooden trough. The grave goods and discovered in that mind included a Frankish iron headed throwing Ax. Important objects in the Eastern Mediterranean, the lid of a bronze you are jug, an incomplete carved block of weird victory on fragments of decorated bone. So this was clearly an important person able to import goods from Europe. Now you might be asking, why were people buried with their belongings? There's no clear answer to that. Some cultures, of course, believed that you needed your belongings in the afterlife that you are going to have I use for them. They could perhaps simply have been included to show the wealth and status of the person being buried, of course, mind for contained the chromatids remains of a man and a woman. There was also a horse on what may have been a dog. Night animals where quite frequently fund and the graveyard. And there may have been several reasons for this. In the case of courses, they were a symbol of strength and par and that you were a warrior. The dog may have been a beloved family pet. There's also some belief right there that the Anglo-Saxons thought you needed a mode of transportation to get you to the afterlife. So a horse may have helped with that. But there's a lot of evidence to suggest that animal sacrifice was part of the funeral rites in this period. There were also bone ******* pieces and this graves, so, but this couple could have some games and some pleasant evenings in the afterlife, I imagine. Minds five-sixths and seven Carver who execute excavated the site and the 1980's, early 1980's, find commissions in bronze balls. Objects find and getting pieces on ironclad bucket, a sort belt on drinking vessels. Ironclad buckets seem to be quite commonly find that suddenly I'm not sure why that is. Animals find, again, being buried with animals denote status. So animals fun include a horse Capital read Dare on a peg, which had been burned with the deceased on a pyre as part of the funeral rites. Owning Kotlin dare obviously shows a certain amount of prestige and wealth. In the 1980's on 990s, Martin Carver find three burials and level areas between the minds, including a child's from ends with a buckle and a little spare. Even a millennium and a half later, that's still very sad. And a man with two belt buckles and a knife on a woman find buried with a leather bag, a pin on a Shetland or a decorative belt cost. All these items are telling us something about Anglo-Saxon society and what was valued. In mine 17, a young man was buried with a horse, which had been ritually sacrificed as part of the funeral rites. The Manhattan OK coffin, again, a sign of prestige, a pattern wielded sword, which means it was made up of different metals forged together on twisted into a pattern. That's something that's quite elaborate and difficult to do. So it would've been very costly. His sword belt was wrapped around the bled and how to bronze Baco with garnet close in a cluster may even glass. And there's an example of class in a anomalies. If that's the right word, to the right hair sort of overlaying with glass or precious stones or items like that. Around the coffin where two spares, a shield, a cauldron, bronze balls on iron bond bucket again, animal ribs. There was also a bridal monitored with bronze plaques. These items are currently on display at Sutton Hoo. The most famous find at Sutton Hoo, there was obviously the famous ship barrier. So here you can see a picture of the mind which can tend the shipper or reconstruction of the bond because of course it was dug up but it was kind of re-create it. You can see the excavation of the ship here to the right, the actual timbers of the ship having routed over the years, but it's impression how they been perfectly preserved. The fact that you can see the diggers and the ship shows you just how big it was. It was 89 feet long. As mentioned before, it was one of the most important archaeological finds in England. Excavated in 1939. The ships timber did not survive, but it's Forum was perfectly preserved with all the iron rivets in their original places. So that helps to imagine very clearly where the word hot Bain, the original ship was 89 feet long, as I just mentioned, pointed at either end with a raised Stern. The hall was constructed clunker style, which means with overlapping planks that were fastened with rebuts. There were 26 wooden. Ribs to strengthen the structure. Repairs had been med suggesting that at heart, initially being as safe fairing vessel, it wasn't just boat for the burial of the deceased. The decking benches unmasked have been removed, otherwise it would've been far too tall. It's a barrier in a bond along the gun whales were or arrest ship like the old English letter Thorn, which gives us the soft th sod thorn. And here's a little picture of a thorn here because I couldn't find it. And the special characters on PowerPoint, there may have been possessions for 48 hours, Man, this ship belonged to someone very important. The central chamber had timber walls on a riff which may have been pitched. This have a vassal had been dragged up hill from the river on lowered and to the trench on that would've been quite a job. So only the tip of the stern rose above the surface of the land. Once the body was placed in the shipped on oval mind was constructed to cover the ship. It would've been a symbol of par to be seen by those using the waterway dominant and the skyline. And it was the final time we believe that the cemetery was used. The roof eventually collapsed under the weight of the bond uncompressed the ships contents. So the $1 million question, who was buried in the ship? Well, a body was never actually find, but soil analyzed in 1967, font phosphate trusses that suggested a body may have to send degraded in the acidic soil. Platform of a byte nine foot was presumably a coffin and close by where an iron bond buckets and other one iron lump containing beeswax on the bottom mad and Northern continental Europe. These objects suggested that the habit, the body light to the west of the ship. The artifacts find also suggested the regalia of a king. There was a royal bill and that was a place where King stayed while they were touring the Kingdom. There was a royal nearby at ramble shim. Scholars believe that may have been king, read dwelled or his son or possibly steps on saggy about. Another possibility was the body was app world of cysteine glia, who ran from 624, was assassinated in either sixth, 27, or 630. To read weld is widely considered to be the most likely occupant of the ship though, because the dating of the ship and the Commissioned objects that were fine with it. Gareth Williams, curator of early medieval coinage and the British Museum. Debts the grid from between six hundred and six hundred thirty-five. The sort Health suggests that soda was left Honda from where find on the health, but also because the sword was late to the right-hand side rather than the left-hand side of the body, which was in contravention of the Anglo-Saxon tradition. Here at the bottom where you can say the re-creation of the ship at the Sutton Hoo Visitor Center, by the way, was also a very, very important find. This important Grant had been damaged by looters unfortunately. But when it was excavated, it was full of iron ship rivets. So it was understood to be another ship barrier. Martin Carver who excavated on the site from 1983 to 1990 to find a rectangular plank line chamber by 16 feet long and six foot seven wide where the body and the grid of goods would've been laid ICT a small ship had been laid over it and an east to west and alignment and then covered with a mind. Chemical analysis of the chamber suggests a body hug land and the southwestern corner goods find in this ship barrier that included a blue glass cup, a silver buckle on a gold coated study from a buckle, like the fines and mine one, the tip of the sword funds had an elaborate pattern. Silver guilt horn mites were made of the same material as those found in mind. One, as we're dragging like mites or plaques. So it's quite likely that there was a connection between the burials up mind one on mine T. The remains of people who were decapitated on hanged, refined and the symmetry, presumably they were executed. And it's thought that a gallows existed nearby and five visible from the river for the execution of criminals. Real warning to people not to break the law as they went up and down the river. And this may have existed in the eighth, ninth centuries. So suddenly is very important to the understanding of Anglo-Saxon art, especially the art of Britain between the sixth, ninth centuries. Gold on garnet fittings show a fusion of earlier techniques by a master Goldsmith. And the artifacts show a continuum from the Christian royal accumulation of artworks from diverse sources throughout the Mediterranean, on Europe and England. It to the art of gospel books, which were what we call illuminated with fine inks, liturgical and dynastic objects. So we can see that progress of art from Sutton Hoo onwards, the barrier was reminiscent of similar fines and Vandal and Sweden. And you can see a helmet below font unbundled, very similar to the helmet find on Sutton Hoo. Let's talk a little bit about the excavations that happened at Sutton Hoo in medieval times. The western end of mind one where the ship was fine, was dug away on a boundary ditch was added. Because of this 16th century ligers missed the burial chamber because the ship of the mind had changed. So they dug a pit and narrowly missed the burial chamber because they just weren't looking in the right place. The site was explored during the 19th century, but no useful records were kept. So we didn't know what they achieved at that time. In 1860, amount was fine full of iron ship rebuts. The most famous excavation of someone who was by a guy who we mentioned before, Basel Bryan, who was commissioned by eight of the protein, the landowner on the exhibition took place in 1937 to 1939. In 1926, the land on which the cemetery was found was bought by a retired Army officer, Colonel Frank pretty. He sadly died in 1934 and left it to his widow and their young son. I was a spiritualist and because of this, she was quite interested in finding out a bite. The dad people she believed were buried on her lands are not everyone actually thought this was a burial sites, but she very much dead. So she decided to organize an excavation in 1937. She contacted Ipswich museum. They put her in touch with Basel. Brian, who I mentioned before, was a self-taught archaeologist who at the time was excavating Roman sites for Ipswich museum. She wanted him to start up on one, as we mentioned before, but it had been disturbed in the past. I'm Brian. And conjunction with as switch museum decided to begin with minds 234. These have been robbed of valuable artifacts. Sadly. At that point it was unclear whether the fines were Anglo-Saxon or early voting. Switched Museum became involved up this point when it was clear that there was something interesting on this site. 1939, Brian began work on mind one, finally, with parties Gardner John Jacobs, her gamekeeper William spinner, and anti-state record Bert filler. So imagine being part of a project that we become as famous as that. On day three of their deg, they discovered a ship's rebuts. Then others were fined and possession. After weeks of removing earth, they reached the burial chamber. The next month, Charles Phillips of Cambridge University was showing the site by the curator of Ipswich museum, guy Minard. He took over the deck, which was clearly of national importance, with input from the British Museum, the Science Museum on the office of work. So this is considered a very, very important site. Brian was asked to stop excavating, thought he kept on working anyway, that possibly safe the site from being later. Phillips assembled a team and extensive photography was taken, including the photograph dots included here. Conflicts began to arise between Philips on Ipswich museum, between the local and trust of Ipswich museum on the national interest represented by Philips. Ipswich museum prematurely revealed the find on pretty hard to then pay for a police guard because let's remember this is one of the biggest treasure, is actually the biggest treasure ever fund and the UK, you can see eight is pretty photographed again below. The fines were taken to London and they were stored there during World War II. It was decided the under English law, the treasurer belonged to aid with Prezi. So she decided to donate it to the nation. Work was put on hold on the site during World War II. The second major excavation was undertaken by this guy, Rupert brace met friends and he dug at something WHO between 19651971, he led a team from the British Museum's Department of british America evil antiquity. They reconstructed unreplicated the scepter on the helmet. They oversaw conservation of the artifacts so that they could be viewed by the public. They organize the second excavation site as brisk met for at felt that the first excavation left unanswered questions. The ship impression was re-exposed on that had suffered damage as it happened thing properly refilled. Or auto refilled after the 1990's excavation, plaster casts were taken all the on a fiberglass ship was progess tense. It was possible to replicate it up the visitor center at something. It was decided to destroy the impression at that point on, but it was really scary decision, can you imagine that? But they decided to destroy the impression and excavate to see what was beneath it. The mind was later restored to its pre 1939 appearances we've seen earlier the team discovered evidence of prehistoric activity on the site. So not only the Anglo-Saxons, how to use this land. Bruce Smith for root three volumes of the Sutton Hoo ship barrier in 19751970 it on 1983. The next major excavation at something who was lad by this gentleman, Martin Carver, between 19831992. And you'll notice no one's just like an alert and awake if something who they do tend to be there for years. In 1970s, the society of antiquities in London and the ash Boolean Museum in Oxford decided to launch another excavation. In 1982, Martin Carver from the University of York was appointed to lead the excavation. The aim was slightly different at this point. This is not by any means a treasure hunt. The aim was to research the politics, social organization, and the ideology of Sutton Hoo. The site was surveyed using new techniques that hadn't been used before, such as a map of soil patterns. And this showed the minds have been positioned following prehistoric and Roman enclosure patterns. Anglo-saxon execution grades were found at this point, as we mentioned before, and those were newer than the primary minds. Mine too, was re-explore it on rebuilt. Months 17 was fine to contain a young man on grave goods with a separate grid for a horse. As we talked about earlier. Much though was left unexcavated for future research unless yet unknown scientific methods. So Martin Carver wisely saw that at some point in the future, we might be able to better understand the site and half scientific methods that would explain the site better. So, quite wisely, knew when to call it a day. Suffolk County Council carried out some excavations in the year 2 thousand, around that time, the National Trust were planning to build a visitor center on the excavated on the proposed site of the visitor center. Where are they find early high-status Anglo-Saxon burials. What first attracted attention to this particular area. It was part of a sixth century bronze vessel from the Eastern Mediterranean, which would presumably form part of a furnished barrier. It's known as the Brahms wealth buckets, and it's pictured here. And it was decorated with a Syrian or Nubian style showing naked warriors fighting alliance with a great conscription. Use this in good health, master Kant for many happy years. If you're feeling enthused to see the treasures of Sutton Hoo, where can you go to save him? Well, I've been to see them at the British Museum where the ship treasures are on permanent display. Of course, it's worth going to the British Museum for a whole host of reasons. But you can also see finds from the 1980's excavation of minds 234 with replicas of fines from the mind Guan ship burial on display at Ipswich museum. The National Trust has a visitor's center opened in Sutton Hoo itself, which opens into the thighs and then tastes. So it was actually opened by Seamus Heaney, who had recently translated Beowulf at that time. So, Beowulf on all things Anglo-Saxon, were very much in the public consciousness. 12. The Norman Conquest: In this video, we're going to talk about a major turning point in English history. A year that has gone down as one of the most famous years basically in the history of England, 1066. The battle, well, above all that is known as the Battle of Hastings. The Battle of Hastings might actually be better referred to as the Battle of bottle. Because the time that it was closest to Wallace bottled, but obviously histones just sounds a little bit better. This famous bottle occurred on the 14th of October, 1066. And it was a battle between the Norman French, William Duke of Normandy, who later became known as William the Conqueror. I'm King Harold Godwin and the Anglo-Saxon King of England. It took place seven miles northwest of Hastings tip. So to be fair, it was fairly close to his tanks near the modern day atan of battle and East Sussex. The death of Harold and the victory of William concluded the Norman conquest of England. Sabbat texts as out of the Anglo-Saxon period and into the Norman period. So high did all this come up bite? Well, we've mentioned a little bit about this in our videos on the Anglo-Saxon period. So I apologize for any repetition. There wasn't too much. In the year ten O2, ethyl RAB, the unready, married Emma, who was the sister of Richard the Second jake of Normandy. Their son was Edward the confessor, and he spent many years and his youth and exile and Normandy. He succeeded to the English throne and 1042. And he created a huge, enormous influence in English politics. He appointed norman soldiers, clerics, and courtiers, to positions of par, and asked me know that was contested by some Anglo-Saxons, especially Godwin of ethics, that might have caused AdWords to encourage. William of Normandy is believed that Hayes was AdWords chosen successor. Definitely William claimed that Edward Hall told him that he was his chosen successor. That was his reason for involving. Howard Goldwyn was Godwin son, hence Godwin son. He was one of England's most powerful nobles on our live west x by the time of Edward's death and January 1066, when Edward died, Harold was elected king by the wet nag them out or the Witton. We've heard of them before. A congregation of nobles who advise the king and they're important decisions. They chose Harold as they're very Anglo-Saxon King. Harold was crowned by AL drugs. They Archbishop of New York. You'll also note that ALL drug is a very Anglo-Saxon name. Heralds crying was a majorly challenged by several people. Actually. It was challenged, of course, by William, who had apparently been told by AdWords that he was the rightful heir. By Harold hydrangea, also known as herald the third of Norway. Hydrangea sided an agreement between his predecessor of magmas that good and King Arthur of England that should one of them die with ICT on air, which Edward had done. The other would row both England and Norway. In early 1066, heralds brother tall stake, who had been exiled by AdWords, the confessor gathered a fleet and Flanders on Reddit site faced England. He seems to have had some ax to grind against. His brother. Harold pursued toss six flights, Antarctic rate of East and glia and Lincoln shirt and continued to be very difficult. Topic was defeated and withdrew to Scotland, but he didn't give up there. He gathered more man. So you can say for Harold does not have a peaceful start to his ran, that he has several very powerful enemies, all of whom have forces on all of whom very submit, move against him. Hydroiodic invaded England in early September with 300 ships on 15 thousand man, and he was joined by toss tags forces. The Norwegians occupied York. Heralds resources are having to be divided amongst several very challenging problems. There were a couple of significant battles that year before the Battle of Hastings. On the 20th, September hard-drive fantastic defeated herald at the Battle of Fulford. But only five days later, Harold defeated their forces at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, which we can say pictured below. Harddrive fantastic were both killed. So he gets a couple of major enemies and this leaves William as Harold, only viable opponent. William Landes and England. William landed invasion forces and the sides of England's, I haven't say, on the 20th of September 1066, hate strikes while he knows that Harold is very much beleaguered. And Harold was forced to move sci-fi gathering forces on the way. The forces he gathered, we're very much ADH hawk. And he used the Anglo-Saxon system where landowners were expected to provide man. That was time-consuming, raising the farads, and probably the force that he was able to gather in a short period of time wasn't as large as he may be needed. Other, we don't know that for sure. They English forces were made up of infantry and a few archers, whereas the Norman forces were half cavalry on half arches, so they are way better armed and equipped. They also haven't had as long a March by the time the Battle of Hastings begins, likely to be in better shape physically. William expected harold to try to surprise him, and so he ordered his men to sleep with their arms. On a date Carl dead try to surprise William, but William Skype's relay the terabytes of the anime to the Duke of Normandy, William March towards his things or bottle to mate Harold. So let's talk about the battle itself. The Anglo-Saxons stood on high ground and they used a shield wall formation, which is their typical way of fighting as we part before. The Normans couldn't break their line on, so they pretended to flee. The English rather foolishly pursued them, and then the normal is turned on their pursuers on slaughtered many of them. The battle lasted from 09:00 AM to dusk, and that was a very long battle and medieval terms unlit and the battle Harold was killed and at that point his forces went into retreat. William, actually fun to the monastery that you see on this slide, on the side of the bottle, and it's called Bottle Abyei on the high altar marks the plaintiffs were Harold died, so that was a mark of respect to the enemy. It's possible that we don't completely know that to 5 thousand Normans on for thousands Anglo-Saxons died and the Battle of Hastings as North, a lot of people to die in one day. It's traditionally believed that Harold died from an RO, piercing has eye. That idea comes from the bio tapestry which you see pictured here, which is a tapestry that commemorates the Battle of Hastings. But if you have a close LET care, the tapestry is telling us that this is the death of the King Harold. But it's unclear if the figure with the arrow and his eye is actually Harold. If you want to freeze this video and have a closer look thoughts, fine, but what did him if mom's brain, the 12th century historian, claimed that Harold died when an arrow pierced desire and that answered his brands. So definitely that was high. It was believed for a long time that he had died. The Chronicle of battle lobby tells us that no one knew who had killed Harold. As it happened in the thick of bottleneck. If William had killed Harold as semi-colons claimed, he definitely would have taken the glory for that. So if it had been known who had killed Harold, they definitely would have wanted to have been rewarded for it. So I think we can take it as rat that nobody knew whether it was crammed on Christmas Day, 1066. Despite some resistance and the odd rebellion, the victory marked his conquest of England. He becomes William the Conqueror. England becomes unnormal domain. Also. This marks are very big change and the life on culture of England, the French language of the Normans becomes the language of the court. On the English language starts to become a little bit considered rough. And in fact today if you use French best words like neurosensory late, you're probably talking very formally. If you use Anglo-Saxon best words, you're probably having a good old swear someone. England van as part of this wider Norman world, unnormal technology and thinking really changes the facet England, as we're about to say. 13. William the Conqueror : In this video, we're going to hear a byte, a pretty major figure in English history. Actually didn't live in England and didn't spend too long in England. And anti ones stretch. Yet he managed to make radical changes in the society of England, and that is William the Conqueror night, his legacy has felt very much right the way through to the modern day. For example, my surname as Williams, as are many peoples who live in England and Wales. And that actually comes from William the Conqueror. That wasn't as only name, of course, his chief title was William of Normandy. He was Duke of Normandy. And he lived from around 1020 it until the ninth of September 1087. As I mentioned, William of Normandy was the name that he went by on the continent. He was also known as William the First of England, and he was also referred to as William the *******. And that wasn't just by his friends during the pub. He was born and legitimate, which meant that he had to fight very hard. When he acceded to the Duke of Normandy. He became juke abnormal day and 1035, when he was aged only seven. And he became King of England from 1066. He was a descendant of Rollo, who was the Viking who became the first ruler of normal day. After defeating Harold Godwin said at the Battle of Hastings, which we've heard all the bite, he led forces made up of Norman's Britain's Flemish Ben, from other provinces of France against English revolts. That period was known as the Norman conquest. That gives you a little idea of who William walls, but high did he end up and England, we've talked a little bit about this, but what made him think he had a right to the English throne? Well, let's look a bit at the background. Hi unnormal GIC came into the picture of English history will ask me hurt before Ethel RAB the second known as ethyl wrap the unwrap or the unwise, had married Emma, who was the sister of Richard the third over normal day, who happened to be williams. Uncle. King swam the first of Denmark forced ethyl read his family octave England. They had sought refuge in Normandy, died and tan 14 ethyl wrap returned to her. But Swan, some Knute contested ethyl rads return. So a lot of turmoil. And England at the time. Then ethyl RAB died suddenly antenna attain and connect became King of England. Ethyl read on Amazon's all frauds and AdWords became exiles and Normandy, and Emma became connotes. Second wife died in 1035 on his son Harold her foot became King of England and his sunlight ABA heart, the candidate became King of Denmark. Emma went into exile until her Arthur conducts became King of England after herald staff and 1048 and Edward return to England. I was proclaimed King after Arthur commits death and 1042, and he became who we now know as AdWords, the confessor. He installed many Norman's into positions of power because he pretty much grown up in Normandy and that created a conflict, as we heard earlier with God, one of Wessex was felt that he was allying Norman's too much par and the English Court. William of Normandy, claimed that advert the confessor, have named him as his successor. We do not know the truth of that, but it's entirely possible that he did. We've heard that William came from a powerful family in northern France. But let's hear a little bit more by this family. William was born out of wedlock, as we mentioned, to Robert, the first Duke of Normandy and political her lover, who was the daughter of filbert affiliates, who was either autonomy or an Obama on one side of his family, his father's side, very much from royal and aristocratic stalk and a commoner am on his mother's side. He was born in families and the Duchy of Normandy. And his illegitimate status caused a struggle when he succeeded his father. I'm just at the fact that he was only seven years of age, so it was never written in stone that he was going to be jig abnormal date into adulthood. Other, he was his mother lived her marriage. Her Luanda captivated and had to SMS auto of bio on current Robert Martin. And they both became important. And Williams regime in England, auto became our love Kent on bishop by year. And you as the buyer tapestry, of course, Robert became Earl of Cornwall. Almost one of only a few known components of william at the Battle of Hastings. Her lambda also had a daughter, but her name is unrecorded. Her live. His brother Walter was one of Williams protectors during his minorities. So you have this very powerful ruler who is only seven years old. And obviously, a lot of people wanted control of the boy. As we've mentioned, William did not accede easily, become Duke of Normandy, and he had a very difficult childhood. His father robert the first, was accused of having killed his brother Richard the third Williams uncle, whom he succeeded as Duke of Normandy night, we don't know the truth of that, but it is entirely possible. Conditions and normal day where unstable a noble families were despoiling the Church. In other words, it's sort of just taking its lands and possessions. Allen the third of Britain, a waged war against the Dutch, presumably seeking to control it. Robert began accruing support from normal Nobels he needed to shore up his own position. Robert also continued support for the English princes, alphas and Edwards, who were at the time as we pad and exile and northern France. Earlier, jigs have been illegitimate was not the biggest thing in the world that William was legitimate. And Roberts charter suggests that William was always his chosen heir. In 1034, robert decided to travel to Jerusalem, which was against the advice of many of his supporters. This is not for a crusade. I should not pick the crusades doesn't start till sometime later, but going on a pilgrimage was something that many evil people did. So n January 1035, knowing he was going into dangerous voyage, he convened a console amid Norman magnet swear fealty to William as his heir. Sadly, he died in July 1035 and Nicea, on his way home to normal day. At that point, they seven-year-olds, as we've mentioned, William becomes Duke of Normandy, which is a pretty powerful position in Europe. One of them was supported and his succession by his great uncle Archbishop Robert, King Henry, the first all fronts, the new eugenics guardians continue to support the English princes. Unfortunately, Archbishop Robert died in 1037 on chaos and saved people van began scrambling for guardianship of the young Jake Allan of Brittany, who had been an enemy of normal days. We've heard again custody of the young Jake, but he died and ten, four-day Gilbert of Briana took charge of William, but he was killed only months later. So one of them is having a very, very unstable childhood, but the worst is yet to come. Another guardian charge two, was killed around the same time, but then Williams guardian Osborne was killed in Williams chamber as the boys slept and the early tan, four days, which is really even by standards of medieval violence, that's pretty horrific. Walter Williams, maternal uncle, is sad to have occasionally hidden him and the homes of peasants has, in his childhood he was pretty unsafe. Despite feuding with each other on fighting over WM, the normal nobles dead high ever accept the Duke of government and William have the support of the church, which was pretty key to keeping him. Os GQ. William comes off edge and tan 46 when William was a buy it, teen, rebellion broke out and lower normal day. And that was led by Guy of Burgundy, whom you can see pictured to the right. Possibly fonts full economy describes how William escaped under cover of darkness, but we do know that William took refuge with Henry, the first of France. In July 1047. Henry and William return to normal day on one of the butler Valley dune near a camp. William van assumed par and normal day. No more guardians. He is not in control and he has the support of the French king. He installed what became known as the trace of God, which was an act with limited the number of days in a year that fighting could take place. For example, you couldn't fight in the Sunday and you couldn't fight on face days. So that took quite a lot of days out of the year that you could fight. You were not allowed to fight and holy places such as churches or Abe's. Angie couldn't attack and fight with women. All these things fund pretty bizarre modern air, but they were real progress in the Middle Ages. This was actually the first recorded European peace movement. But William was not really amount of pace and find his was a project bloody edge. He was in a constant arms struggle against the nobility and the Normandy until about 1054. And then there were less or crises occurring until the byte 1068. Relations with other French pars could be a bit patchy. And William besieged guy of burgundies castle at Briana, an exiled him in 1050. Then he joined King Henry and a campaign against Jeffrey Martel. He was Duke of Zhou and the French king felt that Duke of Zhou was becoming entirely too powerful. They captured a fortress, but they didn't really achieve much else and they didn't fight together again. In 1052, Martell and Henry actually joined forces against William. This time, the king wanted to maintain dominance over Normandy. As William became more in control of the Duchy, his part was growing. And other words, the royal forces surrendered IDA fear when they heard that William had stormed the Garrison, burned it down on half the survivors hands and feet hacked off, which even in medieval times was pretty gruesome. The soldiers basically felt this guy is a psycho. He did this because they have mocked him for being born the grandson of a tanner. They did this by buying animal skins against the wall. So 1053, William was also fighting his own nobles. And the new archbishop, real mugger, who was the son of his uncle Richard, the third logic of Normandy, who was sad hopping, murdered by Williams father. So complex family relationships there. In 1054, henry, King of France, on the Norman rebels, launched a double invasion of Normandy. King William naturally retaliated and he divided his forces into two to counter the two invading parties. The second force to faded Henry at the Battle of Mortimer. The Bachelor lied Williams ecclesiastical supporters because the church was pretty important components in his support to depose Archbishop mugger. What Adams conflict with Henry on the GQ of only lasted until 106 day. They invaded normally again in 1057, but they were defeated at the Battle of variable was the last and vision are full-scale invasion of Normandy during Williams lifetime. In 1058, William invaded the candy of DRA. Henry tried to just launch him. There was a two years of age, the stage of tumor, which ended with Henry's death and 1060. The Duke of Zhou also died in 1060 and that left William as the most powerful figure in France. The balance of power tilted and his direction. William also had a powerful ally and count bold when the 5th of Flanders, whose daughter Matilda, the Pope forbids William tomorrow at the console of rims and tan 49. Though he married her regardless and the ten fifties I'm at that point people norman relations work on having a good relationship with the Catholic Church was a good idea. If you were a Maddie able monarch, the marriage was considered quite successful. And actually there's a lot of evidence that william felt a real affection for Matilda, and that wasn't something that always happened in a medieval royal marriage. They ended up having four sons, three of whom lived well into adulthood, and five or six daughters. So at this point, let's talk a little bit about what William was like personally night we have no pictures of him, obviously from around that time period. Here to the right, you see what he looked like and the kind of popular imagination, very much the Conqueror charging on his stage withing a spare. He said to have had a burly and robust appearance and he got quite thought and later life, He's also said to have had a hoarse voice. He was strong enough to be able to draw bows that other people couldn't. Jeffrey Martel, the Duke of Zhou, described him as without equal as a fighter and a horseman. Examinations of his femur, which is pretty much all that we have left of him, reveals that he was around five flip tab, which is a pretty average height and our edge, but it made him quite tall for the medieval period. His men hobby was hunting. He doesn't seem to have been inclined towards reading or kind of literary pursuits as far as we can tell. And he seems to have been faithful to his wife, which was actually unusual for a medieval monarch. They liked to play the field and they often expressed affection for her. So it was a successful marriage and all kinds of ways. Maddie able writers criticized William for his cruelty and great. But his own contemporaries mean those who weren't writing later than the Medieval Period. Lot of his personal piety. Speaking of which, let's talk a little bit about William other church. We've seen that the church supported his accession to become Duke of Normandy. Having a good relationship with the church, which was something that you really wanted if you were a medieval. Later, William cultivated the close relationship with the church in Normandy. He attended church consoles and he made appointments of bishops on the like. So he's keeping his hand in and a very powerful institution basically. He received advice from the church, most notably from the non-normal freshmen lawn Frog, who advised him from the lip ten forties until the 106 days, I would become prominent figure in normal England. From 1035 when he became joke to 1066, the normal nobility funded Eran Twenty new monastic Kaiser's, including Williams to monasteries at count that expanded religious life and the Duchy quite a lot. You can see one of Williams monasteries pictured here. This is the Abyei ozone. That's actually where William is buried. We talked a fair bit about the Battle of Hastings, and we all know that William won the Battle of Hastings, hence becoming William the Conqueror. But what happened after that? Well, after the battle, William tried to reconcile the English magnets with his leadership. So add one of Mircea more car of Northumbria on welfare of North Hampton, who were three of them man English lords were confirmed and their lands on titles. Wealthy off, was married to Williams nice Judith. A marriage between add one on one of Williams daughters was proposed. And Edgar the ethylene, who was Harold, there, was also given land. So he's been conciliatory towards the English establishment artifice point. The same bishops also stayed in place at this point. The families of Harold Godwin sun though whom he defeated at the Battle of Hastings, as we've just heard, and his brothers lost their lives because you couldn't show leniency towards the anomie really in the medieval mind. And asked at others who had fought against William. March 1067, William return to normal day. He took with him Bishop Stieg and more car ad would Edgar and welfare off. So IPA is pretty much take the English establishment with him. William did not Ru England from, and guns. And that was something that was to happen for several generations from Williams time where the King of England did not actually resides in England. That did cause some problems, as we'll hear later. William laughed his half brother Otto, who was special but by you in charge of England along with William Pitt Salzberg, who was the son of the Osborne who was killed, and Williams bedroom when he was a child, fits all Osbourne was met all of her efforts or Wessex auto was made out of cans. So they're given prominent positions and England, he retained many English sheriffs, not the modern word sheriff comes from the old English Shire, rave. England was divided into six shires. The Rave was someone who administered the law and I was in charge of law and not shy or so, he leaves those quite powerful people in place. There was, of course, opposition to William. You couldn't just win a battle and be universally adored. That opposition came from both within on with ICT and gunned. For example, Williams, former ally used as content billowing, invaded Dover while William was a normal day, bought was repulsed. English resistance began with the address of the wilds on he was magnet of structure and her future. He started by attacking his own stomping grounds of Hereford. There were also revolts, an Exeter, where heralds mother gate that was a key figure and the resistance, a figurehead for people rallying to the Anglo-Saxon cause. If it's Osbourne on auto began building castles to assert control over the population. We've seen the n, Alfred, the grids time has Barak system is a big part of defending the realms against the Vikings. Similarly here if you want to show who's boss, you build some big scary forests on Norman castles are to this day quite a sight to behold. William returned to England in December 1067 on besieged exit, or it felt after 18 days. So what did he die? Of course, he built a castle there to secure control. Herald Sun's read at the southwest of England and Ireland, there are forces landed near Bristol. But where to faded by adding off the comfortable on he had been steered to abrogate the confessor. Almost interesting about that as there is someone who served Anglo-Saxon royalty, who's nice serving. William wasn't the case that all the Anglo-Saxons opposed. William. William spend Eastern Winchester, and that's where I'm Matilda was crying as Queen of England. And 1068. Also antenna 60th, add one more car revolted, supported by goals pop track who was RL of Northumbria. The markets have turned against William. Edwin is managed Williams daughter had never materialized. Basically. That's all sperm was becoming more powerful and add ones are seldom Hereford sure. Walls and mercy. He was losing control over his own districts. So we have several base basically March through headwinds labs on both Warwick castle, which is even by Northern standards up pretty impressive castle and really showed who was boss. Hey, then turned south and both three castles, Lincoln, Huntington on Cambridge. What inputs supporters n these castles including William Pavarotti up Nottingham and Henry to Beaufort up Warnick. Then William return to normal day again and lit hand 68, early 1069. Edgar the ethylene, a tight York, but didn't return to York on dead what? He built another castle at which you can see pictured here. The month on which your council is built as called a malt. We have several of them near where I live. And that is not a natural feature of the landscape. The Normans created high place on which to place their forts. Apgar alive, we can swag of Denmark who brought a large lake to a talk York exit or on Shrewsbury. York was actually captured on Edgar supporters declared Edgar as King. William basically bought off the dance because he had a lot going on in his continental lands on in England and it could be bothered fighting them, so paid them off a March to the river tes. Apgar then lost support on flat to Scotland where King Malcolm The third was married to Edward sister Margaret. Wildly off on Gosse Patrick who joined the revolts submitted and we're allowed to keep their lands. When a marched over the panel during the winter onto faded the remaining repulsive shrews break. He then both Chester on Stafford castles. His soldiers burned the countryside they marched through. Unfortunately, that campaign became known as the hurrying of the North. The hurrying of the North was over by 107 day. And at that point the popes lag it ceremonially crime william at the Easter court and when chapters, so the Catholic Church as recognizing William as the King of England. The leg it's on, William began at that point, reorganizing the English church. We heard earlier high, after the Battle of Hastings, William had left English bishops in bliss. Not native clerics were replaced with Normans on loan. Frog became Archbishop of Canterbury, Williams, advisor, Archbishop of Canterbury, head of the church in England. So a very powerful position only to native English bishops actually remained in office. Also antennas 70. William find a battle ABE at the village of battle at the site of the Battle of Hastings. And that was his penance for the deaths that had taken place there onto commemorate the dad. And we heard earlier high, the high altar, a thoughtful API is where Harold Godwin, JSON file and battle and Ecclesiastes, consulate and livable. And 1080 confirmed William as having ultimate authority over the Norman church. The church has always been a big supporter of William online. He's gaining power over it. We haven't heard the last of the Dan's at this point though. Swam returned and spring 1070 on read it along the Humbert on FaceTime glia. And he joined with a local thin heroin, the wick at the, I love a late night. The wick means the watchful. Herodes forces captured, unloaded Peterborough. Robbie Williams secured swans departure and tan 70. He basically, it just likes to pay the dance off rather than fight with them. And he swam to leave as he was busy with a revolt and men and his continental labs need other things to do with William dead fifth, a fair amount of opposition on the continent. Williams father-in-law and support are caught bulb when the 5th of Flanders died, and then his widow Rochelle, became regent for their two young sons. She married fits ours burn. But he was killed in February 1071 at the Battle of Castle. Robert Baldwin's brother became content and he wasn't too fond of William. He opposed Williams par on the continent, as well as trouble on the continent. There was even more trouble in England in 1071 would put down a rebellion in the North of England. Url Edwin was betrayed and killed by his own man. William build a causeway to subdue the I love LA, where Morcher on heroin where still hiding it. In 1071, William and when Scotland undefeated malcolm the third, who had been invading the North of England, William and Malcolm, and signed the Treaty of Abernathy. A Malcolm gave up his son Duncan as a hostage. It's also likely either we don't know for sure, that he was forced to expel Edgar the ethylene from his court. Then there was even more trouble in France. William return to normal day and 1073 as men had been invaded by folk blue Russia, who was kind of William defeated him in March 1073 and then secured his PAR and northern France. But there was not a time of pace. Robert kind of Flanders accepted Edgar the ethylene. And to his court remember he was not fond of William, or William is par. And he married his sister Bertha, to King Philip, the first fronts who also opposed Norman's par. So Williams animates are aligning with each other. After a quick visit to England and 1074 to see how the backyard is doing. Him spent 1074 and Frantz leaving England underfits Gilbert, William Doran, and Lone Frank. Philip edit, add girt by giving him a strategic castle on the English Channel at Monteverdi's or lemma. But Edgar was eventually forced to submit to William and not thwarted Phillips plans to the limit Norman par. Then there was even more trouble and troubled England. 1075 saw the revolt of the Arles on the arrows were ralph the Gale airlift Norfolk, Roger directory at Hereford. And you'll notice the very French nims. So Ralph was Britain on Roger was normal. The son of William Salzburg. These arrows had less authority than their predecessors had, had, and they were not happy about it. Wildly off of Northumbria, who was a favorite of William's, also joined the rebel Arles. Ralph asked for Danish, adds. A lot of Williams enemies are coming together. One of them are and Normandy during the revolts, which was a bit like saying it has beneath me to deal with this. Williams man besieged the Arles and their castles. Ralph was eventually forced to leave knowledge in the care of his wife on flat to Britain night. And knowledge was besieged on surrendered. The Dan's eventually arrive with 200 chips, but it was too late because knowledge hot already surrendered. Him arrived and 1075 to subdue the Danish threats that dead bring him across the channel, leaving normal day and the care of Matilda, Roger and wealthy off where imprisoned wildly off was executed. And May 10, 76. And we can see a statue of wealthy off on the slide. Unfortunately after thighs and years, the face isn't a very good Nika. We get some idea of what he might've looked like. September 1076, William marched against Ralph's castle, a doll and Brittany. Philip the first lifted the siege and defeated William at the Battle of doll and 1076, forcing him to retreat to Normandy. It's Phillips breasts success against William, as well as trouble and fronts on Trouble in England. William also had a lot of trouble in the family. Let 1077 or early 1078, Williams, eldest son on air, Robert quarreled with his brothers William, Henry, and we don't know for sure, but we think it started off with Henry throwing water over Robert, which it seems a very small thing for a lot of people to die for. But thought as what happened, robert left Normandy with bound of supporters, including the sons of some of Williams most loyal nobles. This is a BAD situation. They went to a Catholic MLR and started reading Normandy from there, supported by Williams animates on the continents or his own son has gone over and joined his enemies. When again, this bond rebels and drove them from re-bar. But Philip the first give them a castle that Jerboa. And William was staged them there. And tan 79. After three weeks, the rebels salad or from the castle or left the castle and took the procedures by surprise. And Robert actually managed to unseat William from his horse. But William was said by talking to Englishman who was then subsequently killed. On the 12th of April, tat at William and Robert, finally midterms on Robert was named air to Normandy, enormously important part of William's estate, England, as I say, well, it's the backyard than there was even more trouble and England, Williams to fade out Jabberwocky encouraged rebels and Northern England. And in 1079, malcolm the third of Scotland, rid of land between the river tes on the tweet for a solid month on devastated that end spraying ten at eight, the Northumbrian rebelled against William Walter, who was Bishop of Durham and areal of Northumbria. And Walter was actually killed on the 14th of May. Tan Eddie, William centers half-brother auto to put down the rebellion. Robert was sent on a campaign against the Scots. He read it and too low then on Malcolm was forced to come to terms. Robert then boat the New Castle from which Newcastle upon time gets its name, which you can see pictured below. There was trouble elsewhere as well. And ten, or Edwin the Pope sent an embassy to England to ask William to do fail today on behalf of England. William refused or we can say that he likes to be n with the church, but he's not going to do this. Eddie one, William return to fight a man on the result was a settlement negotiated by a papal legate. You have to be careful if you annoy the church because you might find that you need their cooperation letter. At A2, William ordered the arrest of his half-brother auto, and we don't know why, but it may have been because auto have tried to persuade Williams nobles to join him and an invasion of southern Italy, which was really exceeding his authority. He remained confined until William died with him as sad to have ordered his release on his deathbed. An NTN Eddie three Robert rebels again with support from the King of France. On the second of November 1083, Matilda died. I'm not, would've been a horrendous blow for William, who was very close to her. One of the things that William the Conqueror is most famous for is the composition of this, the doomsday book. He ordered that's accomplished. And tan MD5, it recorded land holdings, their volume, how much tax was owing on the land, the number of peasants and pliers on the land, who owned the land before and after the Norman conquest. To today are very important historical document. Let's talk a little bit about the end of Williams ran in 1086, Williams daughter constants was married to Alan Duke of Albany, and that was to secure support against the King of France. So there had been some strategic marriages on the part of Williams animates NIH, he's doing the same thing. Robert continued to cause trouble for his father with support from the French king. So what did him lab an expedition against vaccine in Northwestern France and tan 87. While he was there, he either fell L or was injured by the palm oil on his saddle. He was taken to the prior array of sense Chavez rule where he died on the ninth of September 10th at A7. He laughed Normandy to Robert and England to his second surviving son, William. Henry, the youngest son, got money. Other got an awful lot safer. Them ordered the release of auto, as we mentioned just before his death. We'll talk about the barrier on re, burials of William the Conqueror. So when he was buried at Cannes and the Abbey, he had funded the Abyei ozone. The man's out. A which you can see pictured here to the right of the robot is not obviously his original grave. His funeral was actually disturbed by a local citizen who asserted that the ABI was built on land that had been stolen from his family. That was actually fun to be true, and the man was compensated. But farther disasters were to happen at the funeral was beg, by Maddie evil standards. The tomb that had been dug for him was too small. And when they tried to force his body into the tomb, it burst, filling the API with unknown Asiana and smell. Many, many years later, centuries later in 1522, Williams tomb was opened on the orders of the papacy. Not I've tried to find out why, but I can't find a reason for this. Maybe you come in 1562, during the French wars of religion, the tomb was opened a GAN and Williams bones were scattered on, pretty much lost except 150. And that's the femur that we talked about earlier from which we were able to deduce the height of William the Conqueror. In 1640 to the thigh bone was buried with a marker, was replaced and 1742 with a more elaborate monument. Non-thought tomb was destroyed and the French Revolution but replaced with the current ledger stone that you can see here to the right. After William staff, Robert and William the second fought a war over England. Unnormal date Robert, remember, just never go on with the rest of his family. And William the younger died and 1100 and his brother Henry became King of England. Robert captured Henry at the Battle of tension and 11 OSX. The brothers lost men from Norman control so that they're squabbling, starts to impact their lands. 14. Norman Buildings: Hi guys. This video, we're going to talk a little bit about Norman buildings because the normal is quite literally changed the landscape of England. We've talked a lot about high. They built castles, they also built churches and abbeys night. Some of the buildings that they built are still standing. Some of the state of ruins and some actually quite complete. Obviously during the dissolution of the monasteries under Henry the eighth, on number of medieval buildings where destroyed, which is quite sad, but we've got enough left to really say that we know something about Norman architecture. Little anecdote here. When I first moved to England, I decided to do a bus to her and learn a little bit about the history of the area where I lived. And they target and the bus trip mentioned that the old Norman churches and the area There's one on a place called Castle comb, which is an absolutely lovely place to visit, has got a crusader graph which is fascinating and very, very old building. But he was talking about high. Those buildings were engineered for signed, the equivalent of modern microphones, thighs, and years ago, that someone could speak from the front of the church and be hard at the back. And I thought, Oh, that's amazing that they were able to do that. So that got me slightly interested in medieval architecture. And it is kind of amazing. They managed to both these buildings that have this sense of par and all. But we're actually also quite practical and fit for purpose. So here we are on the baby sees Norman buildings gallery, you can say, but some of the buildings are in England on some fronts. Not the style of architecture that the normal is used is called Roman ask. And that's a fusion of a whole lot of things because norman De have been very politically volatile and unstable until William really asserted par when he came into adulthood. And so they didn't really have their own architectural style. They weren't settled enough as a culture for that to happen until a certain point. And then they adopted this Romanesque style, which was a mixture of various things. One of them being this sort of classical style, hence Romanesque, also dramatic influences and their Byzantine and Carolingian influences. So it's what came before the Golf Tech really. So let's have a look at some of these buildings. Bottle ABE, we know was built at the site of the Battle of Hastings. So not, not an awful lot of it left, but you can see these big arches and you can imagine the kind of space it would have taken up. Let's look at a building that's maybe a little bit more and one pace. La cathedral, like, Wow, I mean, that is basically built to overall, anyone who walks into it. It has all inspiring very, very high voltage ceilings, everything directing your eye towards the altar, huge windows. I mean, this has got to have met the Anglo-Saxons. Go, whoa, basically. I think we should look at our castle. We'll talk a little bit about Norman castles. There were different types of Norman castles. Let's have a little look at enormous castle of which I'm hoping to visit and show you, but one that's not actually very close to main. I felt a bit later than William the Conqueror as time. But it's still a great example of a Norman castle on most of it is still sounding, and it's called Carrick Fergus castle. This is Carrick Fergus castle, boat to guard the waterway. So you can see this is a very normal way of building a castle. You can see that there is a cape or the tar in the middle of strong wall to defend and it was perceived at certain points in its history. Of course, you can basically see ICT to see on overland who was approaching the castle. And it's just built up high so that all the locals can see it on know who is in charge. As you can see, it's actually quite beautiful. I think we have this fairy tale idea of a medieval castle that comes from watching Disney movies like say Sleeping Beauty and the reality of medieval castles as something very different. There were they could be gory on Grayson places, for example, correct. Fergus council has an oblique net coming from the French verb oblique to forget where they basically three people into this pit, close them over on, laughed them to die on there. So a fairy tale, it certainly was not. It's a strong center for the Normans to sort of show their par. So I'm going to go back onto the BBC's website. We'll talk about the different kinds of buildings that the Normans belt at. But let's keep with the theme of castles, as well as building castles like character Fergus, massive stone fortresses. They also built what was called malt and belay castles. I'm going to show you a lot and barely castle. In the place where I live, there's at least three of them around here. A mountain building castle is this kind of idea. So what happened was these hills or moths were not actually part of the landscape. The Normans constructed those to create a high ground to then stick on either a stone or a wooden cape on top. And so if people tried to charge up the mind, you can be shooting arrows, dial-up, bam, you occupied, high grind, are actually, they were very efficient at building these. I can actually construct one of these within days, which would help them to assert control over an area. Not there were certain problems with the wooden capes. They could be burned down pretty easily or accidentally go on fire on the stone capes might actually be too heavy to be supported by the Mott and my actually sink into the withdrawal box of both phase systems. Sometimes they served as a temporary structure until something more prevalent would be put in place. One thing I would say about Norman castles, Alfred the Great has the bar, or the bearer system, which was to defend his country against the Vikings. The Norman castles weren't quite like that. They were basically a visual cue to let you know who wasn't charged on. The intention was to keep control of the locals. You can see in this picture here, the Wind cape at the top of the hill, the mob, but it's spelled on. And then the bailee with a Dutch Rhonda for defense on the wall. And it's the place where people are actually living, going about their business. So let's go back to the BBC gallery. I'm going to talk a little about bug churches, not after the Norman conquest. Architecture in England on Normandy was fairly similar, but over time, differences obviously appeared in the two places. Let's have a little look at a Bosch Tim Church. Basically Norman churches were both along the lines of a classical Basilica, where you have this longitudinal No boding with the altar to the AST data and the shape of a cross, if you possibly can. There is this high nave are sort of ship shipped ceiling. And that's actually part of the signed engineering because sand biases off the ceiling. You have natural amplification. This is an example of a normal charge, Bosch Tim Church. They were built to last for centuries. Some of them like the church I imagined a castle comb where auditors over the heirs. Sometimes in the Victorian era. But it was not so much the enormous intention to build a whole lot of new churches. They were happy enough for the ongoing socks and charges to stay standing. They were of course, very interested in cathedrals. We have looked at alike if they drove. And let's actually look at that AB AO Dam, which is the women's ABE. We've seen the man's Abbey where William the Conqueror is buried in other videos. This is the kind of thing they were building a normal day. Very, very grand decorative pillars intended to be all inspiring. And so this is a combination of engineering and art history that created Norman buildings and really changed the landscape of the places where they were built. 15. The Plantagenets : Now we're going to learn a little bit about the plan to paginate the royal family who ruled England for a byte 300 years before the tutors came to par. And not only did they ruled England, bought they were a force to be reckoned with in continental Europe as well. Here is a timeline of the montage that monarchs and Osmo here there's a little bit of debate about when the plantar Jeanette era officially began. But a lot of people, as beginning with Henry the second night, Henry the second was the grandson of Henry the Ferris, who was some of William the Conqueror. His mother was Empress Matilda, who was the only surviving child of Henry the first. His father was a guy called Geoffrey plantar, Jeanette or Jeffrey kind of old Zhou. He had that kind of continental heritage going as well as the throne of England. And for a time he co-wrote with his son Henry the young king. But Henry the young king actually died before he could become the king. And so two of Henry's other son ended up ruling. Richard the first, also known as Richard the Lionheart and King john. Know if you've seen any Robin Hood movies, you might be familiar with the concept of good king Richard, I'm bad king job. That's a little bit of an over simplification. Kind of more or less what happens? Another thing about Richard the Lionheart, well renowned for his role in the Crusades. I was a bit of a warrior, but did you know that he was killed with a frying pan waterway to go after job. His son succeeded him, henry the third, and then his son Edward, the first note as long shanks became king. Now he was called long shanks because he was over six foot tall, which in the medieval period walls really quite remarkable. He again was a bit of a conqueror, like to go to battle, a real warrior. His son Edward was second, not so much. He's probably most famous because of the play written a bite him by Christopher Marlowe. And we'll talk a little bit later in another video about the troubled life of Edward the second who is rumored to have been killed with a hot poker to the Biles. He didn't ingress yet himself with his court unfortunately. But his son, Edward the third, succeeded him. And that began the Hundred Years War with France because Isabella Edward the third is mother, who was both the daughter of a French king and the sister of two French kings. It felt that her son had a grit claim to the French throne. But Philip Levallois happened to disagree, enhanced the Hundred Years War began. And Edward the third, well succeeded by his grandson, Richard the Second, who proved to be a bit of a horrible King. He did not do well at. He was cruel, he was tyrannical, and he was also incompetent. Henry Bolingbroke, who was his chasm, a son of his uncle John of Gaunt, deposed him. I became Henry the fourth. He was succeeded by Henry the Fifth. Much spoken off by Shakespeare, arouse me know, and Henry the SEC, the same. We're coming into a period around this time known as the Wars of the Roses. John of Gaunt, happy marriage, political bunch of Lancaster. His descendants become known as the house of Lancaster. And then there is the highest of York who believe themselves to be more directly descended from Edward the third. I'm thus to have a better claim to the throne. So we have an ongoing dispute between these two cadet high-rises of the heights of ontogeny it, so AdWord the fourth is very much I York king. So he kind of defeats Henry the sixth and becomes king. Henry the sickness keg again. And Edward the fourth is king again. Edward the fourth married a commoner and a widow who was several years his senior. That was considered really remarkable at the time you were meant to Mario foreign princess and mix some kind of Allegiance for your highs. But he married this lady because he liked her. They had an awful lot of daughters and two sons at one of their sons will, King Edward the Fifth, who was one of the so-called princes and the tar, two children who simply vanished from history. And we're gonna look at that mystery a little bit later on. But the most likely explanation for the disappearance walls that they were perhaps murdered by their uncle Edwards brother Richard the Third, who was the last ontogeny, King. Richard the Third due to Shakespeare. I'm just due to the fact that he lost the Battle of Bosworth has been described historically as pretty much a Tyrone's on a monster. But the recent discovery of his body has caused us to question some of the things that we know about him. This story of the ontogeny. If you're a fan of Game of Thrones setup, you're gonna enjoy the ride of hearing about the ontogenetic monarchs. A few quick facts about the highest of plantar Jeanette. It originated in all Judea and France, hence its early kings were called the angiosperms, in other words, from LJ. They held the English throne from the reign of Henry the second, which began in 1154 until the death of Richard the third at the Battle of Bosworth and 1485, where he was defeated by Henry Tudor who ushered and the cheater than estate. Magna Carta. That very famous document limited the royal pars. And England no longer have an absolute monarch. The monarch is not the all-powerful figure that an early medieval king might've been. The ontogenetic throughout their tenure, were in conflict with the French, the Scots, the Welsh on the Irish and other words, all of their neighbors. The ontogeny, it's where defeated and the Hundred Years War against the French and the 15th century. As I'm recording this, there is a show airing on Channel five in the UK called Why do the British win every war? I would like to point out that they English and lost the Hundred Years War. During this period, English became England's primary language. So when William the Conqueror had invaded, he ushered in French as the language of the court, the kind of official court language. English, starts to come to the fore. Revolts, rebellions and feuds were quite common under the ontogenetic. They nobles having more par, as the king had less, nobles, could actually raise our Mason, such as the army, which defied Henry of a sixth. We've talked a little bit earlier about the Wars of the Roses, and we're going to talk about it a little bit in more detail later on. But you can see here pictured the Lancaster roads, which was rad, the rows of York, which was white. And then when Henry Tudor married Elizabeth of York emerged the two lasers, we got the Tudor rose, which is both red and white. There were two cadet branches of a high supply ontogenetic fighting over the succession. As we heard earlier, the Lancaster branch was descended from John of Gaunt, who was the son of Edward the third. And he had married a lady called blanch of Lancaster. The York branch felt they had a more direct line from Edward the third. So the house of Lancaster was never secure on the throne. This conflict became known as the Wars of the Roses or the cousins wars, and it caused enormous instability in the country. It ended when Henry Tudor, the Lancaster air to faith of Richard the third at the Battle of Bosworth, I was crying Henry the seventh. He then married Elizabeth of York, who was the daughter of the York King Edward the fourth, brought relative stability to England. Did this royal highest gap, the implant alginate? Well, the name was first adopted by Richard of York, third Duke of York. So the nymph ontogenetic comes from the 12th century. Monica, for his ancestor pictured here, Jeffrey kinds of Anju, who was also jig abnormal day. Now he had married emperors Matilda, who was a daughter of a Henry the first. He was apparently quite fond of wearing broom blossoms and sort of gold yellow flower or plantar. Plantar Jeanette. The tutors kept using this name because it implied that Henry the eighth was descended from Jeffrey, from Henry the first via his mother Elizabeth over York. So they kept using this name because it was expedient to them as well as to the plant modulus. So I'd mentioned a little earlier that the first montage that kings are also referred to as the adjuvants, or in other words from OJ. And those kings where Henry the second, Richard the first, also known as Richard the Lionheart on King John. The French compassion on Valois row horses also came from Algeria, so it gives you a good kind of royal pedigree. Some historians consider Henry the second to be the first plantar paginate ruler, and others give that title to Johnson. Henry the third, refer to these three kings as the adjuvants and stat. Let's talk a little bit about the origins of the ontogenetic dynasty. In the early 12th century, Jeffrey of Zhou, whom we've mentioned before, married emperors Matilda, also known as mod, who was Henry, the first only surviving legitimate child, but she was female, which match she was going to have to contend with her cousin, stephen, Henry's nephew, who was male for the English throne. If you ever watch the TV show CAD file, they conflict between Stephen and Matilda is as referenced quite a lot not show She's referred to as mod, that she had previously been married to Henry the fifth of Germany. Who became Holy Roman Emperor. Now, the title of Holy Roman Emperor often went to the King of Germany. Basically it meant a sort of tenure ship all the remains of the Roman Empire. And it made your first amongst equals of the Catholic rulers in Europe. So it was an important political role to hold. Jeffrey's father folk the fifth of OJ, past his title to Jeffrey when he married Matilda and went off to become king of Jerusalem. And that was the Christian state funded by European Crusaders after the crusade and 1099, henry, the first son of William the Conqueror, was thrilled at the birth of his grandson, the future Henry the second, he believed would rule England, whilst his younger brother Jeffrey would rule. That was according to the inheritance customs of the time where I came. Didn't just parcel all his lands up and leave them to his eldest son and create an empire. But you laughed different territory's, two different children and kept it all in the family that way. Although that was a bite to change as we will see, Jeffrey and Matilda salt more apart from Henry the first to ensure a smooth succession, but the king was not going to relinquish parts that would diminish his own standing. And so quarrels broke ICT within the family, which meant that when Henry died and 1135, jeffrey and Matilda were in Algeria, which was very much to their disadvantage. Henry's nephew Stephen, than sees the throat arguing that he was the male heir. Matilda obviously argued that she was the actual child of Henry, the first listen initiated as civil unrest that was known as the anarchy. Jeffrey was pretty much more interested in acquiring Normandy than England, but he realized that his position was wake West. Stephen was on the English throne. An 1139, Matilda on Roberts, her half-brother, the first Earl of Gloucester and Henry, the first legitimate son, invaded England and then nine-year-old future Henry the second became their campaigns male figure head, which is like Matilda sang. You want to mail? Well, I've got a son. 1141. Stephen was captured and later exchanged for Robert, who was being held hostage. Jeffrey conquered normal day and transferred it to Henry and 1150, pretty much Nim, only as a Henry was still quite young and he retained a key role in its government. Jeffrey of Anju, Jeffrey plantar, Jeanette died and 1154, before he could formally divide his realms between his sons and his Will, henry received England and DOJ to add him against Stephen other, it was understood that he would eventually pass on to his brother Jeffrey. The young Jeffrey though died and 1150 it before this could take place. All Zhu and England is quite a formidable amount of land and Europe. And on top of that, we can add NOT, which Jeffrey had become kind off after Henry had added a rebellion against its rulers. In addition to that, henry married Eleanor of Aquitaine, the Duchess of Aquitaine, on the 18th of May, 1152, after her marriage to Louis the Seventh of France was a nulled. So the arrangements hence acquired Aquitaine and suddenly they own a vast amount of Europe. When I say they own, they ruled over a vast amount of Europe. Stevens wife and elder son, Eustis, sadly died in 1153, and that led to the Treaty of Wallingford, in which Henry was recognized as Stevens air. As long as Stephen could remain King for his lifetime. His second son, William, would keep his father's steps. Stephen actually died pretty soon afterwards and 1154, and Henry succeeded him becoming Henry the second. Henry's rent saw the building of a vast European empire. But he's most famous for his role in the death of Archbishop Thomas Beckett, who's still to this day considered a martyr of the Christian faith. Well here a little bit about that later, because it's not entirely the truth does say that Henry had him killed, but it made him but ignominious amongst the leaders of Christian Europe. Under Henry the second, the ontogenetic acquired an awful lot of land in Europe, but they didn't hold onto it forever. Richard the first, also known as Richard the Lionheart, who was the son of Henry the second and the Eleanor of Aquitaine, died without an EHR and that caused a succession crisis. And as we've seen, succession crisis lead to incredible instability in man and terrane. Some of the magnets supported Richards nephew Arthur and others, his brother John. And then only Zhu, we owned a rush, was supported by the nobility. Philip the Second of France, through his weight behind his vassal Arthur, to become the next ruler of England. John defeated Arthur's forces though, and prevented the capture of his mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, as well as seizing the entire rebel leadership, anti-fraud, his sister Ellen, or the fair maid of Britain, they pictured here quite a title that the thought makes him sound like a bit of a hero. He was not, he was extremely krill and the view of many unnecessarily cruel to his prisoners. And he was widely believed to have murdered Arthur. As a result, the powerful T2 are losing your on Day Rosh families rebelled and John lost Anju, terrane and northern Asia. So his labs are very, very much reduced. Henry the third, who was Johnson, actually maintained a claim to the territory's and algae, right until 1259, when he formerly surrounded them, was given gasket a by the King of France because he was Duke of Aquitaine and he basically then became a vassal of the King of France. But back to John. John had wanted to win French territories with help from his nephew Otto the fourth, who was Holy Roman Emperor, and his half brother William, as well as his sister Eleanor of Brittany, whom he hoped to make Duchess of Brittany. His plan failed though, when his allies were defeated at the Battle of John then agreed to a humiliating five-year trace, and he gave up Eleanor's claimed Britney and hot her confined for life. His authority and England was very much damaged and he was forced by his barons to sign the Magna Carta or the grit Charter, which limited royal par. And so from that on, England no longer have an absolute monarch. But both John and the barons broke the terms of Magna Carta, and that resulted in the first Barons War. The rebellious barons invited Prince Louis of France to embed England. He was married to Blanche, who was the granddaughter of Henry the second. Louis invaded and 1216, but John actually died before this conflict kid. And that ended the Anjum and row and began the plantar genetic Dennis state. And the few of some historians went, henry the third succeeded his father John as king. Parliament on law. So Parliament as such, an important part of our modern day lives and the UK, but it's hard to imagine a time with items. It's around this period that the concept of parliament comes to play. So under Henry the third discord with the barons intensified due to his excessive spending. He liked military campaigns, and military campaigns cost a lot of money. So under Simon De Montfort, the sixth of last year, who also happen to be Henry's brother-in-law. He was married to Henry sister Eleanor. The barons captured most of the South East of England during the second Barons War. Henry the third and his son Prince Edward, were taken prisoner at the Battle of Lewes. And 1264, De Montfort called what was called the grit parliament. That comes from the French word par light to speak. So a gathering so that you could speak and half terms. This grid parliament round from the 20th of January through March 1265. It was recognized as the first parliament because cities and Burroughs sent representatives. The way that members of Parliament represent constituencies and the modern-day AdWords Prince Edward escaped and defeated De Montfort at the Battle of HM and 1265, demand for spotty was horribly mutilated by AdWords army. Very little Mercy was shown to the losers. Henry was restored as monarch and the rebels were a breccia punished encoding this sequestration or removal of their lands. Adwords than left England to join Louis the night the fronts on Crusades. Either Louis died before he arrived to join him, but Edwards stayed on Chris and with very little success, I think he managed to capture one time. He actually survived on assassination attempt when he was on crusade on flat to sway. Henry died whilst Edward was absent from England, but the barn swore allegiance to him as AdWord the first and his options, he didn't actually return for two years. I know you're thinking why is the Edward the first wasn't there already I King Edward? Yes, there was Edward the confessor and Anglo-Saxon times, but really the numbering of kings only begins with William the Conqueror. Adwords also known as long shanks because he was incredibly tall and have very long legs at oversaw a time of legal reform. You'll see him pictured here to the right knee does look very long and tall. In this picture, he imposed his authority over the church and statutes prohibited the donation of land to the church. So we can see in the early medieval period that rulers wanted to be kind of n, with a charge on being the good favor of the church. Iran this period, the churches is also a powerful institution as well as the monarchy and the king wants to limit its par. He also promoted Uniform Administration of Justice, which was not something that hasn't happened under his father, where it was a bit piecemeal with sheriffs giving railings all over the place, and a very sort of haphazard way. Edward also codified the legal system. His military campaigns cost a lot of money. When Philip the fourth confiscated gasket a and 1294 Edward, someone's an unprecedented assembly, including low-ranking landowners and merchants who wouldn't really have come to the notice of the king before in order to raise money for a war with France. And this was a de facto parliaments and it included a barons, clergy nights on Burgesses, or traders who were making money in the boroughs. At this point, what was England's relationship to Scotland, Wales, and Ireland like, well, Edward the first had been left Ireland by his father on the understanding that it would be governed by English law, kind of annex to England, but actually the English nobles who had been granted London, I'll admit that quite difficult. Neither is a long history between England and Ireland, which doesn't quite fit into the remit of this course. But if you're interested in it at Margaret onco sack has written a little illness period. So have you seen the movie Braveheart, that case, you might know the story I'm about to tell. Edward was asked to intervene in a succession dispute and Scotland, and he ruled in favor of Job, who swore loyalty to him. So AdWord ban insisted that he had sovereignty and Scotland and he interfered and Berlioz judicial decisions, which obviously annoyed him, allied with fronts. And 1295 and AdWord invaded Scotland on, deposed him. In Wales, AdWords defeated Llewellyn up Griffith. The statue of Redlands established England's authority over whales on Edward's son, the future Edward the second and became the first Prince of Wales at birth. And of course, the English model still uses the term prints or Princess of Wales for the heir to the throne. As I'm recording this, Prince Charles as Prince of Wales. After the second succeeded Edward the first and he fist. He had short, I'm unhappy life, very much chronicled by Christopher Marlowe and his famous play, he's believed being executed a Barclay castle. And we're going to hear a little bit more about him later. Let's talk a little bit more about the Hundred Years War. 13, 28th, Charles the fifth of France died with a male heir. And as mentioned before, succession crisis calls a lot of instability. Queen Isabella, who was the widow of AdWord the second, she was also the daughter of a French king and the sister of two French kings. And she made a claim for her son, Edward the third of England, who was a matrilineal grandson of Philip the fourth, in other words, descended from Philip the fourth through the female line. The senior ground Santa Philip the third, though in the male line, eventually became King Philip Obi-Wan. So they can patients are now replaced by the Valois as the rulers of France. As Duke of Aquitaine. Edward the third paid homage to fill up, but Philip confiscated equity and unfollow anti-A from Edward and 1337, claiming that Edward was harboring his cousin on animate rubber of Artois. Response AdWord walls, cheeses. And he proclaimed himself as king of France to encourage the Flemish to rebel against Philip. A lot about those ensued, including an English naval victory at the Battle of sleep and allowing victory at crazy With Edward capturing the important port of Kali. And our diet Collie as an important port, but in the days before air travel doubly so because if you were English, it was hard you were going to get into Europe. Edward also won the battle of novels cross against the sculpts and captured David the second King of Scotland. But the black death halted AdWords campaigns on killed a third of his subjects. Nothing like a pandemic to halt Japan says they're the only ontogenetic known to have died of the Black Death, incidentally was June of England who was adword with ARDS daughter and she died in Bordeaux. Edward son Edward, known as the Black Prince, resumed the war from Bordeaux and he actually defeated a French force which was much larger than his own Poitier and captured the French King John. John agreed to a huge round, some 4 million ACO. I've tried to work out what that is a modern money and I just can't find an estimate, but it's a lot. The Treaty of Brittany was signed on it caused a lot of celebration and England, where it was ratified by parliaments. So notice it has to be ratified by Parliament that can, can't just go out on a limb on his own anymore. When it comes to international religions, hostages from the Valois families, the French royal family, were held in London. John returned to France to raise the upgrade ransom. Edward the third restored the lands of the adjuvants, including Normandy, Britain day old man on the coastline from Flanders to span the plantar genetics again, or a par highest within Europe, the vowel hostages escaped though and returned to France. So instead of thinking that gets him I'd of paying the ransom, John is actually horrified that has Ward has been broken. And he returned to England, where he remained until his death. Charles the SEC, the France, upheld the terms of the treaty of Brighton eat, but he encouraged Aquitaine to challenge the authority of the plant autogenous. The Black Prince, who had been fighting and Castiel, it returned to England where he died of a long-term illness. His brother John of Gaunt took over leadership in France, but with little success, peace treaties over several years failed to deliver basically. Adword the third, encouraged the use of Middle English as the official language. And so some historians refer to him as the first English King of England because remember the plantar genetics, they originate in all different parts of fronts. By culture, they're not fully English, I think we can say. Edward the third was succeeded by the son of the black prints, the disastrous monarch, Richard the Second. Farther restraints on the power of the king occurred under Richard the second. Richard the second levied pool taxes, a bit like modern day console taxes to pay from military campaigns, peddling a lot of pressure on ordinary people who had suffered an awful lot because of the Black Death. This lab to the Peasants Revolt and 1381, where the working classes took to the streets. The Lord's a palette sought to a strand Richards wrote, which they viewed as tyrannical and capricious. These were Thomas of Woodstock, who was first Duke of Gloucester. Richard fits alum, the 11th Ireland around Dell thomas to Beauchamp who was the 12th Art of War, and later Henry Bolingbroke, who was the son of John Galt. He was the king's chasm on Thomas Mowbray, who was fresh jig of Norfolk. They established a commission to r2 for a year, but eventually they had to rebel against Richard to fading his army at the Battle of ROTC caught bridge. Then followed the merciless Parliament from the 3rd of February, it's the 4th of Jane, 1388. It revoked Richards pars and a convicted many members of his court of trays. And remember the punishment for trays and walls deaf. Several of Richard's followers were executed and the leader of his army, Robert Deavere out as Chancellor, Michael dipole-dipole were condemned to death and their absence having flat abroad, Richard managed to re-establish his PAR, having Gloucester murdered and Kali and benefits when his uncle John of Gaunt returned from span, warrant Gloucester's title. Bolingbroke and Mowbray, where exiled. John of Gaunt died in 1399 on retro, disinherited his son Henry Bolingbroke, who responded by invading England with a small but growing force. Henry deposed Richard, was crowned Henry the fourth of England, the first Lancaster King. Richard the Second died and captivity that year. Most likely he was murdered. The resulting Lancastrian dentist named that because John of Gaunt had married bunch of Lancaster were never phrased the challenge of not being the rightful heir of Richard the Second. That led to the Wars of the Roses between the highs of Lancaster and New York. 16. The White Ship Disaster: Let's talk about a pretty pivotal moment in English history, and that is the white ship disaster at the time that I'm recording this, RL Spencer, the brother of Princess Diana, has just published a book on the white ship disaster. And actually Dan Jones has a fantastic book called the plantar genus, which begins with the white ship disaster kids. It was a key moment in the history of that dynasty. No ship that ever sales brought England such disaster. None was so well-known. The wide world over there perished Then with William the king's other son, Richard, born to him before his succession by a woman of the country, high spirited youth whose devotion had earned his father's love. Richard, our love Chester and his brother, author out the guardian and tutor of the king's son, the king's daughter, the context of polish, and his niece, they are both sister, the context of Chester. Besides all the choices nights and chaplains of the court and the noble sons who were candidates for knighthood. For they have hastened to, from all sides to join him, as I have said, expecting no small gain and reputation if they could show the king's son some sport or do him some service. These are words written by the 12th century historian William of moms, spray applied and accident which basically wiped ICT the brightest and best of the youth of the English Court. The white ship was a vassal transporting nobles from France to England, which sank and the English Channel nearby in Florida, on the 25th of November 1120, we had a list of people who died before. They included William Adams, who was the heir apparent of Henry the first and England's bright young thing. Also his half-sister Matilda of perish, as we heard on his half brother Richard of Lincoln, illegitimate children of Henry, the first Richard, Debra, she was our love Chester, the royal justice, Jeffrey readout, an awful lot of very prominent figures suddenly perished in this disaster. The disaster Ladd to the succession crisis that is known as the anarchy, which caused devastation and lasted from 1135 until 1153. The ship's captain, Thomas fits Stephen, meaning Thomas, son of Stephen, was the son of Stephen fits Erard, who had Captain Mora, which was the ship which had brought William the Conqueror, William outlines grandfather to England. The credit I asked William Adeline for wine. I'm basically a huge party broke out and there was considerable binge drinking. No one was really in a fixed it to be in charge of a fast vessel. Some passengers panicked on disembarked, and that included the future King of England, Stephen off Bois, who made a pretty momentous decision not die to get off the ship. The drunken nobles ordered that Steve them to attempt to overtake the kingship and the kind of a bit drunk and look, oh, let's have a risk that kind of drunk and failing. Ship had already sailed, which they were attempting to overtake. But the white chip was newly refurbished. It was the latest in technology at the time and it was fast. They were confident that they could bait King Henry to England. But they sat off in the dark. On the port side of the ship, hit a rock known as keel. Both on the ship capsized. William outline actually got on a boat and he could have escaped, have been spared, but he heard his half-sister material does cries and turned back to try and rescue her. And his boat was simply inundated with terrified people all trying to climb aboard, which drag the ship. Dawn killed everyone who was on board. The only survivor of the white ship disaster. It was a bit sure from real who held onto a rock. When Thomas fits Stephen surface and realized that William Adeline was dad, he chose to draw on rather than phis Henry, the first. After the white ship disaster, Henry's only surviving legitimate child was his daughter, also known as Matilda. Hey, hey, both illegitimate and legitimate daughter. Matilda. She was also known as Empress Matilda because she had been married to the Holy Roman Emperor, as we heard earlier, or mod, he forced his barons to swear an oath of loyalty to her. But a woman had never been the monarch of England. And also, Matilda was unpopular due to her marriage to Jeffrey of Algeria or Jeffrey ontogenetic because only Zhou was such additional animate of England's Norman nobles. When Henry died and 11 35's, the barns would not accept Matilda as queen. She happened to be an old Zhou when her father died having quarrelled with her father. Henry is nephew stephen of Bois, who was comfortingly male in the eyes of the barons, was crowned king. Jeffrey I'm Matilda, began a war for the throne of England, which caused devastation, particularly in southern England. But when Stevens wife and his eldest son died, he named Henry Matilda sun OS has air, and he succeeded as Henry the second in 1154. 17. Henry II : In this video, we're going to talk about what was pretty much the glory days of the adjuvants are the ontogenetic. The time of Henry the second, but his life was one of chaos and conflict. Henry the second was also known as Henry plantar Jeanette. Henry fits embryos because of course he was the son of Empress Matilda. Henry carts mantle or Henry short code because he preferred to be roughly dressed. He lived from the 5th of March, 1133 until the sixth of July, 1189. King Louis the Seventh of France made him Duke of Normandy. And 1150, he became kind of own shoe. And 1151, following the death of his father, Jeffrey the fifth, also known as Jeffrey ontogenetic. His marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine and 1150 tape met him, Duke of Aquitaine. He became the kind of norms by trade day and 1185. So by the age of 40, he dominated England, much of whales, the eastern half of Ireland, and the western half of France, an area letter called the Angelman empire. So his lands in Europe where considerable, I'm not mad him a force to be reckoned with. At times, he also controlled Scotland and the Duchy of Brittany. Henry M, to restore the lands and privileges of his grandfather, Henry the first after the anarchy. The term the anarchy was actually coined in the Victorian age. But as we know, this refers to the Civil War that ensued when Henry's mother, empress Matilda I, started her claim for the English throne against her cousin stephen. After the discord of the anarchy, Henry restored royal Administration and England hegemony over whales mating the superiority of the Normans and Wales. And he can gain control of man, I'm terrane. He wanted to redefine his relationship with the church and that became something that he is pretty well what he's remembered for, but not in a good way. He's best remembered for his part. And the death of Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, whose murder and 1170 shocked Europe. And Beckett remains to this day a martyr of the Christian Church. Henry felt a cold war, sometimes actual wars with Louis the Seventh of France. And that lasted for decades as Henry expanded his empire out, Louise expense, and he gained territory and central France and to lose, he eventually control more of France. Van Larry dead and more than anyone had done since the time of the Carolingians, the family of Charlemagne. We've already heard a little bit about Henry's early years in education, but let's go into a little bit more depth. So Henry was born in normal day at Le Mans on the 5th of March, 1133 and he was the son of Jeffrey, the fifth Duke of Zhou, also known as Jeffrey pumped algebra tells me know on amperes Matilda, who was the only surviving child of Henry, the First of England. He probably spent his early years and his mother's household accompanying higher to Normandy and the lead 1130. But at the age of seven, he started his education at all Zhu and his father's territory under the famous grammarian Pedro descent. 1142, when he was mine, he was sent to Bristol as part of the campaign against King Stephen, of which he became a bit of a figurehead, as we discussed earlier. For a year, he lived in the highest of his mother's half brother, Henry, the first illegitimate son, Robert of Gloucester. There he was educated alongside Robert son roger of Wooster Roberts, who was known for its education on the boys, had a magistrate or 11 teacher called master mafia. Henry was also taught by the columns of St. Augustine's and presto, and he remembered them fondly and later life. 1143 or 44, Henry returned to Orangi, where he was educated by William of Orange, who was a scholastic philosopher and a famous academic and intellectual at the time, who was exploring the boundaries of Christian humanism by teaching not just the Bible, but things like classical literature. And Henry would be an intellectual. He didn't always behave in an intelligent way. Let's talk about some of the silly episodes of his teenage years. 1147, when he was 14, Henry returned to England with a band of mercenaries and his immediate household and he headed for wheelchair. The venture was unsuccessful. Surprisingly, and Henry could not afford to pay the mercenaries. He couldn't go home. His mother, aunt, uncle told him to clean up as a mask that they'd never sanctioned his going and he had to find the money himself, so they refused to give him money. Strangely, he then asked King Stephen for money. It shows him to be pretty confident guy to ask basically the anime from money. Steve and actually paid what Henry owed and bought a litem to leave with dignity, but it created that sort of obligation between Stephen and Henry. Henry planned another attack, and 1149, he wanted to ally with King David, the first of Scotland. Ronald's of or to a talk York. But Stephen March to York and Henry returned to normal day. We can say something of Henry's character as a very young man. And these episodes. He's reckless, he's impetuous, but he's also a little bit I'd dishes and we can see that in his asking Stephen for money. I'm also he doesn't mind annoying his family and that's gonna get him into real trouble and lit or life. But at this point in life, henry was described as red hair and freckles. I'm good looking with a stocky build. He was bow legged from riding. He preferred to be roughly dressed, as we said earlier. He was described by contemporaries as not as reserved as his mother or has charming as his father, but he had incredible energy on Dr. He was short tempered on a Roscoe, also something that caused trouble in later life. He was often unreasonably stubborn, which has good and bad results. He understood many languages, but he spoke only Latin and French. He's thought to be the first king of England to use heraldic design. And he had a Signet ring picturing either a leopard or alliance. So he understood the power of PR. Basically, this design that he had come up with was later incorporated into the Royal Arms of England. And you can see it here to the right-hand side. Conflict with Louisa seventh of fronts on later with his son Philip the second walls, a big factor and Henry's life on ran. So let's look at high. That came a bite. By the lit 11 forties. The civil war in England was coming down at her, dragged on too long. It lasted for 18 years on people were basically fat up. The church seemed poised to promote our pace trade aide. Louis the seventh returned from the Second Crusade concerned that Jeffrey of ohms you use par, threatened his own, especially if Henry succeeded to the English throne. Remember at that point, Stephen was on the throne of England and he had two sons, but it was still possible that Henry might one day tick that position. In 1150, Jeffrey met Henry, Duke of Normandy. Louis Nim used as Stephen sound as the rightful heir to the Duchy of Normandy. Trying to secure his own position against the autogenous. He launched a campaign to remove Henry from Normandy. Henry's father advised him to come to terms with Louis, to give Henry his Jew, he could shovel and the humble pie if he needed to. In August 1151, they signed a peace treaty that was mediated by Bernard of Clairvaux, St. Bernard. Henry did homage to Louis for Normandy and accepted Louis as his feudal lord, giving him disputed lands. And Louis then recognized him as the Duke of Normandy. Jeffrey died and 1151, henry needed to secure his smooth succession as kind of orangey West planning to Mary Louise wife Eleanor of Aquitaine. So we can see who I thought might cause men to personal problems. Eleanor was considered beautiful, lively, uncontroversial, according to historian Dan Jones. If you ever get a chance to read Dan Jones book on the plantar units, please do it as amazing. Eleanor had only given Louis daughters, Murray and Alex. He had their marriage on melt. And henry married Eleanor on the 18th of May 1150. To this really insulted Louis. It broke courtly convention to marry the former wife of your feudal overlord. Plus at mid Henry Duke of Aquitaine, he now had more land in France than Louis. He was a political threat. And on a personal level. As I say, Louis was insulted, also threatened Murray and Alex's inheritance as they would've been the heirs to Aquitaine. Hard Henry and Eleanor not gotten married. So blurry formed an alliance against Henry, comprised of Stephen, unused US and England. Henry the first conduct champion or shampoo. Robert Kahn, depression and Jeffrey, who was Henry's younger brother, who accused him of dispossessing him all of his inheritance. And it's quite often tensions on strife within his family that are a real threat to Henry throughout his life. Henry of champion on Robert captured nuff Marsha. They're apt. Louis March to attack Aquitaine. And Stephen placed Wallingford castle under stage. But if there's one kind of situation that Henry the second humbles very well. It's when trouble comes up to him on all sides, as we will see. Henry mood fast. He avoided fighting and Aquitaine by stabilizing the Norman border. He pillages the vaccine. And he strikes against Jeffrey and OJ, capturing his important castle at Mount St. Louis, fell ill at that point on withdrew and not forced Jeffrey to come to terms with handwrite. 1153, Henry Briggs, winter storms to return to England to deal with Stephen sage, he took a small band of mercenaries, teamed up with who buy goods. The first areal of Norfolk delegation of clergy met Henry. We don't know exactly what the conversation walls, but it's probable they told him they supported Steven in theory. But they wanted peace was falling apart after all the years of conflict, Henry promised to avoid cathedrals, that bishops would not be expected to attend his court. Around this time, Henry started behaving as a king, although he was not yet King of England, he witness marriages and settlements and he held court. The next summer, Stephen gathered troops to make a final attempt to capture Wallingford castle. Henry responded by besieging the procedures and Stephen them brought a full-scale army. So it looks like there's gonna be a war. But Barnes, both sides wanted to avoid a battle. Everyone's a bit baffled by this point. Basically, the clergy brokered a trace that irritated both Henry and Stephen. The two men met on how to private chat or by ending the war. Eustis Steven son died shortly afterwards. I'm Steven seconds on William seemed unenthusiastic. A bike claiming the throne. The church continued to promote a permanent peace agreement. So as a result of that, the Treaty of Winchester announced in Winchester Cathedral, named Henry a Steven successor. In return for Henry paying homage to him. William would pay homage to Henry and renounce his claim to the throne. And Henry's foreign mercenaries were then to be sent home. Henry and Stevens sealed the training with a kiss, a powerful symbol of pace and the cathedral. Though, rumors of a plot to kill Henry circulated on he returned to Normandy. Steven died shortly afterwards. All the stomach disorder on the 25th of October, 1154, almost succeeded by Henry. Henry London, England on the 8th of December 1154, and took oaths of loyalty from some of the barons. And Henry and Eleanor Macron at Westminster Abbey on the 19th of December are very close to Christmas or time of celebration. The royal courts then gathered in April 1155. Henry's brothers Jeffrey and William Stevenson. William all died within the next few years and that left henry with light arrival to the throne. England had suffered a lot during the anarchy and it wasn't in a good state, so there was a lot of work to be done. Unauthorized caseloads have been boats all over the place. Royal Forest Law had collapsed. You have to pay the king if you wanted to go through a forest or an anti worker forest. And so the crimes revenue was much reduced, heavy the second portray himself as the true error of Henry the first and he blamed the mass that the country was then on Steven's user patient. He carried out reforms despite spending 6.5 years of the first eight years of his reign in France and Iran, this period of history, as we mentioned earlier, they King of England, the monarch of England, was often not in England. Henry overhauled royal justice on royal finances and he spent a lot on building and renovating royal buildings, which was partly for defense, but also partly for press stage to show who was in charge. The Scottish and Welsh have taken advantage of the unrest and in England to seize lands, heavy wanted to reverse that trend. So he fortified his northern border and he fought to campaigns to restore normal supremacy and Wales restoring the borders as they had been before. The relationship between Henry and Louis the seventh continued to base strand. Let me capitalize on his reputation as a crusader and cast aspersions on Henry's actions on character are covered. He wouldn't go and fight for his God. And just look at all these immoral things that he does, running off with his overlords, wife, etc. Other rulers became involved in becoming a bit personal. There was the prominent medieval IS joan Bu bobbin has described as a Cold War. In other words, they didn't have all fighting and a military actions, but they used certain rulings on political moves in a game of one up much over each other. 1154, Henry Louis signed a peace treaty, but it wasn't particularly solid and Henry did not pay homage to Louis for his French territories. 1158, they agreed to betrothed Henry sun, the young Henry, Louis daughter Margaret. That would involve Louis giving Margaret Henry is disputed lands in the vaccine as part of our Dory, hence handling would get the lamb that he wanted. But it also implied that it was Louis to give away. So nobody lost fears. 1148, a civil war broke out and the independent Duchy of Brittany, Henry claimed overlord chip, as the Duchy had once been ruled by Henry the first, thank you. Brittany would be a good inheritance for one of his sons. He supported the Bretton Conan the fourths claim and used him as a proxy. Really, Henry's brother Jeffrey deposed codons alcohol and nonce and 1156, when Jeffrey died and 1158 cone and tried to reclaim not but Henry annexed it, has lands on his PAR and France are really growing, but Louis did not enter vein and Henry's power steadily and Christ to lose, which had formerly been part of the Duchy of Aquitaine, was ruled by Raymond the fifth. His claim was actually pretty awake. Eleanor of Aquitaine. Would've believed that she was pretty much a stronger air. Encouraged by Eleanor Henry allied with RAM and CFO rabid of Barringer, then threatened to embed himself onto pose the current and 1159 after the events until Louis made a peace treaty with handwrite and 1168 promising to restore the lands of Henry the first, which is something that Henry the second really wanted. It reaffirmed the betrothal of young Henry and Margaret and handed over disputed lands and the vaccine. Young Henry was to pay homage to Louis. That reinforced young Henry's position as air and luis as King Wen for everyone. Shortly afterwards, Louie's wife died and he married Adele, who was the sister of the cons of blah, champion. Louis betrothed his daughters by L and R Murray and Alex to the kites. And Theobald of Bois van abandoned the alliance that he had had with Henry. And this was basically an undercutting the agreed pace. Henry lost his temper, unforced people leg gets into Marianne young Henry, I'm Margaret, who were then at 53 and even by Maddie evil royal standards. That was unusual. Henry also seized the vaccine. Louis Van lost his temper and return completely broke the traits enabled, mobilized his forces along the frontier with taurine and Henry than took Theobald scaffold Ice Age in early 1161 and looked likely the war was a bite to brake light, but to peace treaties were signed. And 11611162, the second overseen by Pope Alexander the Third, who had been supported by both Louis and handwrite when he was in the running to become pope. Let's talk a little bit bytes Henry's government and administration. Henry control more of brands than anyone had since the Carolingians, as we've mentioned before, plus England, Scotland, Wales, and large parts of Ireland. These lands are often referred to as the angina empire. Antibiotic course, meaning from ONE shape. This MR. had no central government, but it was a network of family connections, family controlled lamps on each territory had its own local customs. Henry constantly traveled through his lands, robbed the bank best in one capital. In his absence, government depended on Sanchez, who were court appointed rulers. Judiciary, the medieval equivalent of today's government ministers with a DJ, Chief judiciary being the equivalent to the Prime Minister. Henry used his powers of patronage to recruit effect of administrators. And the church was actually a key part of royal administration in England. Henry mid appointments within the church, which gave him a lot of control and act state his patronage could do real favors and your career within the church, most of his favorite Claire x became bishops and archbishops. Henry mentored more money on that lead to greater trade, but also to inflation. England, henry relied on his father's advisors and Henry the first permitting officials plus those of statements and ability who'd made peace with him. And 1153 before he became King, Henry the second, like Henry the first promoted the so-called new man. And these were mad and they were always men with ite means of low social standing has showed promise and he gave many of those positions of authority. By the 118 days, this new class of administrator was prominent. Illegitimate members of Henry's family were also given public roles. In Normandy, few landowners and joined Henry's patronage. He drew his advisers from the Norman bishops on the new man. Henry interfered and Noble Norman families and regards to marriages and inheritances to shore up his own position. And Henry's rule and algae and Aquitaine was a bet less involved. He was happy to let his officials rum things there. Let's talk a little bit about the royal court of Henry the second. Henry had the largest royal court in Europe. It included nobles, bishops might serve as prostitutes. Clark's courses on hunting dogs. It's a center of par and also a place where people are entertained. The familiaris ratchets was the trusted inner circle of France and servants who bridged the gap between official bodies and the king, as well as playing an important role in running his household and government. Henry enjoyed an atmosphere of hunting and drinking, as well as literary discussion. And his court was particularly famous for hunting actually, and he had many hunting lodges throughout his labs. Henry invested heavily and castles both for defense, for prestige, as we mentioned earlier. But he wouldn't hold tournament. So no matter how April tournament and could have things like joystick, a malaise where knights could show off their military. Prius. And Henry perhaps felt that was a bit of a security risk. Having all these aren't mites assemble. Let's talk a little bit about Henry's marriage and family. Henry and Eleanor, Hannah fraught marriage. And although he was happy for her to r2 and England in 1154 on later on Aquitaine, he did eventually put her under house arrest. Alan are supported her older sons, young Henry and Richard, against Henry and the grit revolt of 115354, as we'll see later, Henry had a harsh temper and he interfered and Aquitaine on this could be the source of her annoyance with him. Also, he had not dealt with RAM and the fifth of two lows as Eleanor would have wanted. Henry and Eleanor had five sons on three dots. Here are the children of the legitimate children of Henry the second. They had William who sadly died at age three. The second son was Henry, the young king, who was crying, does a sort of cocaine with handwriting. But who in reality have very little par. Richard, who later became Richard the first, also known as Richard the Lionheart. Jeffrey who died, and a tournament leaving two young children. John, who was later King John. Matilda, also known as Metella of England, who was Duchess of succinate until her husband henry, the land was deposed and 1180, then there was Eleanor, known as Allen or of England, who was the wife of Alfonso the IP of Castillo, creating unimportant Alliance for her father and the size. And then there was Joan, also known as Joan or Joanna of England, who was queen of Sicily. Due to her marriage to RAM ID of Sicily leader, she married RAM or the sixth, constitute lose and became contest cone sort of tumors. Here is a medieval description of Joan of England and the kind of woman she was, she wasn't able woman of grit spirit. And after she had recovered from childbed, she was determined to control the injuries big inflicted upon her husband at the hands of numerous magnets on mites. She therefore took arms against the Lord Assad family and late stage to a castrum belonging to them known as Lake assay. Efforts were of little avail. Some of those with her treacherous and secretly provided arms and supplies to the besieged animate. Greatly aggrieved. She abandoned the stage and was almost prevented from leaving her account by a fire started by the traders, much effected by this injury. She hits him to see her brother King Richard and to tell him about it, but find that he had died. She herself died whilst pregnant, overcome by this double grief. And that's according to the Chronicle, agree on Dupuy Laurel. Here we have a woman leading military, which was an unusual thing in medieval times. Henry also have illegitimate children. Those included Jeffrey, who became Archbishop of New York, and William who became the third RL of Salisbury. The instability and hostility and Henry's family was actually in contrast to the relatively stable family life of the patients, the French royal highs and play to their advantage. We've mentioned before thought something, but Henry the second is famous for his role in the death of Thomas Beckett, Archbishop of Canterbury. So let's talk a little bit about how that came about and what the effects of it where beginning with his relationship with the Church, henry didn't try to form an Ecclesiastes policy across his lands. But he did him to resist people influences in order to retain his own authority. At the time, there was a movement within the church which advocated greater autonomy from royal influence or more input from the papacy. King Stephen had forced Theodora of back, the Archbishop of Canterbury into exile and 1152 for adhering to this movement. It was not just Henry, who was a royal concerned with this thinking within the church. In Normandy. Henry hard occasional disagreements with the charts, but generally got on well with the Norman bishops. Norman bishops were numbered amongst his advisors there, as we've seen in Britain, he only really interfered in church matters if it was going to annoy Louis, the seventh. Aquatint, drugs were not responsible for appointing clergy has attempts to influence what went on within the church, caused irritation. According to Wikipedia, Henry was not an especially pious king by medieval standards. And we can see that by his frequent promises to go off on crusade, which he never actually vote vote. In England, he provided patronage to only a few monastic houses which happened to be associated with his family, such as rating RB, which was funded by his grandfather Henry, the first thought was fairly unusual from medieval monarch, and he did not establish many new monasteries. Before his succession, he issued religious charged jointly with his mother empress Matilda on che seems to have been the figure behind his religious thinking. He started building monasteries in France, however, after the death of Thomas Becket to help restore his tarnished reputation. On a personal level though he did take confession before traveling at say, and he used arteries to determine what was the propitious time to sail. Well, that was not so much a Christian thing, but a tradition coming from the classical world where you looked for signs of Wilson a good time to sale. Remember, sea voyages were buried dangerous at that point in history. Now, let's talk about the infamous episode of Thomas backends. When fabled back, the Archbishop of Canterbury died and 1161, Henry saw an opportunity to gain more control over the English church. And the church was a hugely powerful institution within society. So he appointed his Chancellor on good friend Thomas Beckett, us a new archbishop. And 1162, Matilda and Alan art, knowing both men, both expressed reservations over the appointment, but of course Henry ignored them. Back its former role as Chancellor would waken him with him the church hierarchy and he would be forced to rely on hand. Raid was what he was thinking, giving him more part of the church, bought the plan, backfires, went back. It became genuinely religious and a genuinely religious Archbishop of Canterbury was not something that Henry had anticipated. So Beckett cut links with the king and proclaimed himself the protector of the church. Beckett tried to regain lands which had formerly belonged to the archbishop brick. And he opposed Henry's taxation policies. But their biggest source of conflict was over the trying of clergy for crimes. Henry believed that thought should be done in a state secular court. In other words, they should be tried by him and he should have that power over them. Back at believed it was the role of the church. In 1164, Henry forced on agreement under the constitutions of Clarendon, and those were 16 laws that he passed to limit ecclesiastical privileges, church courts on paper part, in other words, to reduce the par of the Church and his kingdom. Beckett at first a grade, but changed his mind. Henry and Bechet, although they had once been close friends, were basically a huge personality clash on the dispute became increasingly personal. Henry Wallace, quick tempered, not open to being reasoned with, pretty impulsive, and Beckett was overly ambitious, overlay political. Similarly, stubborn. Both sought support from Pope Alexander the Third and other international leaders. In 1164, back at, fled to France to seek the protection of Louis the Seventh. Henry harassed Beckett associates in England on backend, ECS communicated supporters of hand raised. So excommunication from the church was a serious thing. And medieval times at it limited your row within society basically. So the Pope supported backends and theory, but he needed hadn't rate to help him deal with Frederick, the first Holy Roman Emperor. He repeatedly tried to negotiate a solution on the Norman charge, also tried to help Henry finds a solution. In 1169, henry had decided to cry in young Henry as King of England is sort of coking of hanged lens or junior King of England with him. And he needed the Archbishop of Canterbury to conduct the ceremony. And Beckett was also embarrassing Henry internationally. So he tried to be conciliated Ray, and start making it up, but it didn't work. He had the young Henry crime by the Archbishop of New York, which was insulting to Beckett. The Pope authorized back to lay an introduction on England and that was like a bond on charge services. Now I bought sign strange and our modern times, but that really did bring a halt to lot of Everyday Things. And England, for example, getting married was done on the charge. Having your children baptized and received in society was done into the church. This was a serious problem, and it was done to try and force Henry to negotiate. They came to terms and 1178, I'm back at, returned to England and early December all looked well, but then backup excommunicated three of Henry's supporters. Henry walls and sense. And he made a famous proclamation which echoes done history. What miserable drones and traders have I nourished and promoted in my high school who left their lord be treated with such shim fo contempt by a low-born Clark. His raising of the new man as I come back to bite him. He's also famously imagined as having said, who nobody rid me of this troublesome priest. He was basically just having a fit of temper when he sat these things. But in response to this fit of pique, four nights to come very seriously that they were being accused of being derelict in their JDs by allying back, It's behave in this way. They set off to counterbore to arrest backup for breaking his agreement with Henry. The 29th of December 117 day the archbishop clans sanctuary and the truck. You were meant to be SIF and a charge going into a church and to avoid bank harmed or arrested. But the Knights hacked him to death and the church, it was a brutal and horrible murder. They actually cut off the top of his head and his blood just soaked the floor. And encounter break if they drove to this day, there is a monument marking the place where Beckett was martyred and he was declared a March by the local monks. His murder pulled Christian Europe. Here was a holy man, hacked to death and a holy place around the time of a Holi festival during the 12 days of Christmas. In medieval mentality, it was hard to imagine something worse than that. Louis made the most of Henry's disgraced. And although the normal charts tried to interstate and interdict was a night on all Henry's lands, on Henry's possessions. He was right In favor. Henri took no action to punish backends murderers, which probably didn't help matters much with regards to his international reputation. But he must have been aware that his words other he hadn't asked for the death of his former France has warrants hot contributed towards that. And we don't know how he felt personally because yes, he'd been fighting with this man and it was a bad argument. But they had one, Spain, France. 1172. Due to international pressure, Henry was forced to agree to go all increase editor. He didn't actually go on overturn the constitutions of chlorines on. He never actually went to increase it. Actually, time would come when he would exploit the counts of Beckett to help his own cause, when his dad friend would actually be very useful to him. More fighting with Louis the seventh ensued. Tensions between Henry and Louis eventually spilled over n to war. And 1167, Louis allied with the Scots, the Welsh and the Britons and attacked Normandy. Henry then attach show molts are apt, where Louis kept his military arsenal and burned the time to the grind. Louis was forced to bonds on his allies America private trace. Tangents with Louis were certainly a problem, but it was tangents within his own family that became some of the biggest problems that Henry would fast. Henry decided to divide the inheritance with young Henry, his eldest surviving son, receiving England and Normandy. Richard ruling and aquaporin, which seem fitting because he was his mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, favorite son, and Jeffrey ruling Britain. He needed Lewis consent for this on entropy stalks and 1169 on what Murray. Henry sons give homage to lobby for their future lands, and Richard was betrothed to Louise daughter Alice, pictured here. She moved to England and became Henry semester as well. That's more than slightly messy, isn't it? She did not end up married to Richard. Henry is having an affair with the sister of the anime that he really needs to appease. Also who is betrothed to his son. Oh dear. When Henry died, she returned to France amide William tal vez con to Pontius. So she never actually might. Richard, as we just mentioned. Louis actually encouraged tensions between Henry's sons. John was betrothed to Elisa, daughter of Humbert, the third kind of Savoy. 1178. Henrys dollar Allen or it might, Alfonso the eighth of Castile, supplying another ally in the cipher. Trouble was coming though in the form of the grit revolts of 1173 to four. And 1173, henries eldest sons revolted along with rebel barons, supported by fronts, Scotland on Flanders. What started as a family spot, soon involved most of Europe, large chunks of Europe anyway, young Henry was a grave that despite having the title Henry the young king, he was not actually allowed to real, here being posts friends with his former Chief Thomas backends and may have blamed his father for a Beckett staff. Jeffrey is promised managed to constants of Britain. They had not taken place and he wasn't certain lands he would inherit. Richard, Eleanor's favorite son was encouraged by his mother to join the revolt. Her relationship with Henry was pretty much disintegrating at that time. The local bar and saw an opportunity to restore traditional pars by aligning with the king's sons. Henry gives three of young Henry's castles to his favorite son John. Young handwrite through a straw at this and lost his temper. Your job bought level of mentality. He's stormed off to Paris on Richard and Jeffrey follow attempt. Eleanor also tried to follow, but she was captured in November 1183. Louis, of course, supported young handwrite and King volume of Scott's on the concept of law in Flanders and brought all promised young handling labs if he won and give their support to him because Henry is a pretty unpopular figure, peroneal revolts broke out in England, Britain, a mankato and Unger lamb. The Norman barns were generally loyal, but there was some discord. And Normandy, however, remains secure. But remember, if there's something that Henry the second can pull out of the bag, it's trouble on all sides on he has really beleaguered at this point in history. Henry faced a huge crisis, but he did have several advantages. He had strategic castles. You have control of English ports and have popularity within the times of his empire. In May 1173, Louis and young Henry, I've talked the vaccine, the road to the Norman capital of rule. Henry secretly traveled back to England, then returns and Contra attacks, killing many of Louis soldiers. I'm pushing Louise army back across the border. Henry pursuits surprised and captured the rebels from Brittany. And he offered to negotiate with a sons, but negotiations broke. Don Henley's army is defeated. The rebels in England at the Battle of foreign, I'm Henry that crushed rebels strongholds and terrane, securing the men rate through his lands. So on all the fronts that he's being attacked, He's fighting back and winning back. In January 1174, Louis and young Henry attacks again but failed and then fighting was paused due to winter weather. In early 1174, Henry's enemies plant and lure him to England so they could attack Normandy. William of Scotland, Northern England, aided by Southern English barons and the Scotts, also a type of Midlands where the rebels were having some success. Henry was not that stupid and he refused to be drawn and focused on Southwest front. Henry's a legitimate son, Jeffrey helped to fight back against the sculpts. Philip kind of Flanders sent an invading force to assign glia at this point, trying to revive the plan of making Henry go back to England. And this actually dead force Henry to return to England in early July. Louis and Phillip were then able to reach rule. Henri traveled to Beckett and I this as, hey, just pose one night of the bike. When he does this, he went to bed, gets to the site of his disgrace, an egg normally encounter rate where he did palettes online saying that the revolt was a punishment from God night that showed him to be humbled. But it also suggested that it was God who was punishing him. It wasn't really leery. And young Henry who have the par, this was a PR when that restored his royal authority. After this, William of Scotland was captured, ionic and their thumb area, crushing the rebellion and the North on he was almost able to say that 18. Richard the Lionheart: Now let's talk about a king has become a little bit of a legend. So we're going to try and work where the legend stops on the fact starts. And we're going to talk about Richard the first, more commonly known as Richard the Lionheart. Here is an image of Richard the Lionheart odds played by Sean Connery and Robin Hood, Prince of faves. We've all seen those Robin Hood movies where Richard the Lionheart returns from crusade, right at the very end on all as saved. Because good king Richard has come home to displace Bob King John. But it's not really. What happened. Was Richard, the heroic figure that these movies met him? I might debate. We also think of him as terribly brave. Was that the kiss? We know he was a crusader once he pious or was he a fanatic and actually his relationship with the church, as we'll say, it was a complicated one. Because whilst he went on crusade to fight for his church and God, he didn't mind taking lands and silver and gold from the charge or breaking the charges rows when it suited him. Walls he kind, or could he actually be krill, like most medieval monarchs? Walls he the y's figure that he's midnight to be in these movies. And he in the end, the grit later the effect of ruler that we've come to think of him as being. Well, let's find out a little bit more about the true historical figure of Richard the Lionheart. Richard the first was also known as Richard, currently Leon Lionheart. He lived from the month of September 1157 to the sixth of April, 1199. He was Duke of Normandy, Aquitaine on gas Guinea. He was Lord of Cyprus. He was kind of Poitier on Zhu Min node. So not only is he the King of England, but he rules over the adjuvant Empire, vast swaths of Europe. He was also the occasional overload of breath night. He wrote Brittany on and off. And of course we know he was king of England. He was the son, the third son of Henry the second and the Eleanor of Aquitaine, as we know by nice, of course, being the third son. No one really anticipated that one day he would be king. He can't the epithet locker de Leon and Norman French Judah his prowess as a military leader on warrior, on those aspects of the legends are true. He was very gifted as a military leader. He took command of an army at the very young age of 16 to put down a rebellion against his father. And he was a high-profile Christian commander. And the Third Crusade leading the campaign after the departure of Philip the Second of France. And he had many successes against solid and the occasional failure as well. It has to be sad. He agreed a peace treaty with ICT retaking Jerusalem, so he wasn't ultimately successful. He probably spoke French and ACI town. We're not sure whether or not he spoke English. He was born and spent his childhood and England. They spent the greatest part of his adult life and Aquitaine, his mother's ancestral lands. He may actually have spent as little as six months in England after his accession to the throne of England. When he wasn't in Aquitaine, who spent his time on Chris said as we paired, defending his French territories or and captivity, he pretty much used his kingdom to finance his armies. So rather than saying his chief responsibility as being railing his domain and he really threw himself into the crusades and he raised a lot of money to be able to go on crusade and also meant that he was leaving his lands on attended. So you can kind of see what his priorities where from that. His subjects the day viewed him as heroic and pious. Let's talk a little bit about Richard's early life. He was born on the eighth of September 1157 and Oxford possibly at Beaumont policies, so that we don't know for sure. Here's reputed to have been his mother's favorite son. He was certainly the sun, but she wanted to Aquitaine her ancestral lands. According to an Angela and legend, there was Inferno blood or hellish blood in the plant alginate Dennis state with dissent from a fairy called salicin. Know, you will say Richard referred to as the devil or the servant of the dabble on several occasions during his life. His mother took him to visit Normandy and 1165, and that was probably his first trip to continental Europe. He had a wet nurse called Gamma of almonds on he paid her a generous pension when he became king. So he's clearly quite fond of Harris child. He was uneducated literary man and he composed poetry and Limousin, which has a dialect of Western European language of the, of the medieval period. And in French, we don't actually know, as I mentioned before, whether or not he spoke English. Of course, you didn't need to speak English to be king of England and the medieval period. By the late 12th century, though, knowledge of English walls expected by those and par, and other positions of authority other than being the king. And John used the fact that Richard's Chancellor William launch Trump could not speak English against William long Shop. Richard was described as a very attractive with hair that was between Rabban blond, light eyes and the pale complexion. He was sad to petabytes six foot five, which would have been very, very unusual and the medieval period, but we don't really know if this is true or not because his bones were lost around the time of the French Revolution. So we can't verify it. His brother John was five foot, five bucks, you know, two brothers could be a foot. Different than height thoughts possible. From a young age, he was noted for his chivalry and courage on the word chivalry. And the late medieval period describes a certain code of conduct that is nightly coming from the French word from night. March 11, 59, when he was about 1.5, it was agreed that he would marry one of the daughters of ermine, bearing here the fourth kind of Barcelona. But this never actually happens. But you could say that he's still pretty much baby and he's been used as a pawn in his father's European political par, games. The early 116 days, it was great that Richard Mary Alice kindness of the vaccine and who was the fourth daughter of Louis was seventh of, from somewhere you've heard a lot about the disputes between Lyrae the seventh on Henry the second, of course. The patrol though was confirmed and paste straight 81169. Richard paid homage to Louis for Aquitaine, his mother's ancestral lands, which has father and tandem as his inheritance. Because at that point in history, young Henry was still alive and he wants his father's heir apparent. Young Henry was crowned as heir apparent. And June 11701171, Richard left for equity in with his mother. So Henry actually give Richard the Duchy of Eleanor's request. He was her favorite son on the weld, but she wanted to inherit her ancestral lands. Richard and Eleanor went on a tour of the Duchy to make peace with the residents who may not have been happy with anew Lord who was pretty much still a child or not. Well beyond that anyway, they laid the foundation stone of St. Augustine's monastery and Limoges together. An 1172 and Richard was 15. A ceremony took place in Poitier and was repeated in Limoges to recognize Richard as Duke of Aquitaine on kind of pottery. So he's very young and he's very powerful. He wore the ring of sambar array to these ceremonies and said Valerie was the embodiment of Aquitaine. We've talked a little bit before about the grit revolt. Now let's specifically talk about Richards role and the great revolt. During the Great Revolt, Louis the seventh knighted Richard. I'm not created a tie of vasculature. So lu the seventh is not Richards overlord. He has aligned himself with his father's greatest enemy. Richard then went to PO2 and gathered Barnes who were loyal to him and Eleanor against Henry the second. Eleanor was captured. So Richard led his supporters on his own and he established a base. And Sant Henry the second then captured sound, but Richard is skipped taking refuge in the chateau to Tilburg for the raft of the conflict. So he's kind of out of the picture well relative to his brothers for the rest of the grit revoked. The Treaty of Monterey between Louis the seventh 102nd ended hostilities and that was signed an 1174, when Richard was 17. The peace terms actually specifically excluded Richard, and that basically meant that he'd been abandoned by Louis. He went to his father's court and Poitier on the 23rd of September. I'm dramatically bagged his father's forgiveness, weight-bearing, unfollowing of Henry state. And when Richard died, he was actually buried at the fate of Henry the second, what's showed his inferiority to Henry the second basically. But at this point, Henry kissed his son as a sign of peace. Richard was given to castles and CO2 and half the income from Aquitaine. Eleanor Amanda prisoner basically as insurance for veterans good behavior and she remained and present at various castles until the 118 days when she was needed to deal with Richard, as we will see. 1175, Richard was sent to Aquitaine to punish some Barnes who fought for him against Henry. Now that's an uncomfortable situation to have to punish people who have been loyal to you. As part of this, some councils were restored, some are raised on some return to the steppe. They have been in before the Great Revolt. That included the two months siege of caseloads are agon, which Richard eventually won with siege engines of battering rams. So he's showing himself to have a good command of military strategy. It was this compound that are intend the apathetic law. Cordelia the Lionheart for his courageous, uninspiring leadership. Henry the second, as we've heard earlier, was having an affair with Richard's fiance Alice, and that made a marriage inadmissible in the eyes of the church. Basically, you couldn't marry someone who was sleeping with your father. But the marriage was a great deal in terms of politics on. So Henry barricaded. Richard saw Alice's brother, Philip the Second of France, as a close ally at this point in history, but we'll see that their relationship was complex. Three, Richard's life, we've seen that sibling rivalry and the ontogenetic file may causes a lot of problems and that's invoked to do so again, richard focused on putting down revolts and Aquitaine, and he became increasingly krill, not lead to a major revolts and 1179, so we think of him as this kindly and benevolent king. That was not the case for all of his subjects. The rebels and Aquitaine. And list of support from Richards Brothers, young Henry and Jeffrey has two eldest brother's, of course. In spring 1179, Richards opponents were best and the well fortified fortress of Tilburg. Richard looted and destroyed the farms around the fortress. So its defenders were cut off from reinforcements and lines of retreat. Again, showing that he knows a lot about military strategy. They Sally diet and attack Richard, but he felt buck and he took the capital and only two days. This victory pretty much detailed farther rebellion and many barns at that point declared their loyalty to Richard. Richard had proven himself as a skilled military commander by this 0.1181 on AD2, Richard fifth, or revolt over the succession and the content of ungulate. His opponents were supported by the man he had believed to be his close ally, Philip the Second of France. The fightings spread through the Amazon to pair Igor. The cruelty of Richard's punitive campaigns and Christ hostility towards him. With support from Henry the second and young Henry, he eventually brought bicarb, AMR the fifth Alamos and Ellie at paragraph or two terms. Then he challenged his father again. Henry wanted Richard to pay homage to young Henry for Aquitaine, but he refused. And we've heard this story earlier, but from a different slumped. 1183, young Henry and Jeffrey embedded Aquitaine and some of Richard's Behrens joined them. Richard held back the invaders and the AAC actually executed many prisoners. The conflict paused when young Henry died and 1183, and Richard became his father's heir apparent on heir to the throne of England. Henry the second demanded at that point that Richard give up Aquitaine, but he refused because King of England was a bit of a nominal title at that point in his life, whereas an aqua tiny hard, actual par, and also Aquitaine was his mother's country and he had an emotional connection to it. Henry sat job to embed equity. In 1187, Richard allied with Philip the Second, not their friends again, while it's pretending pace towards his father. In return for his head Richard a grade to give Philip his rights over Normandy on all. And he paid homage to fill up. Now he wasn't a kid at the time that he did this. And it does seem to be a big thing to have given up his rights to normal Dan ology. That's maybe some indication of how much he hits it as father, basically. Henry the second unlicensed he would give Aquitaine to John, whom Richard believed was no way fit to rule their mother's ancestral lens. To deal with this situation, Henry brought Eleanor out of captivity and sent her to raise them with Richard, and she was then restored as the ruler of Aquitaine. 1189, Richard joined Philip the second is expedition against Henry the second on attempt to take the throne of England, rarely rebelling at this point. They defeated Henry at balance on the 4th of July, 1189, and Henry named Richard as his heir width Jones consent. Henry died only two days later. I'm Richard became King of England. Jacob Normandy. Uncomfortable j, so he's not a really powerful player on the European stage. Roger of WHO done the historian clam that Henry's corpse had a nosebleed and Richards presence. And in the medieval world that would've been seen as a sign that Richard had caused Henry staff. Richard the first was invested as Duke of Normandy on the 20th of July, 1189 on crime King of England at Westminster Abbey on the 3rd of September, 1189. Anti-semitism was quite a problem in medieval England. There's some interesting references to it and Dan Jones's Beck on the ontogeny, that's if that's something that you're interested in, it's a wonderful book, I have to add. But at the time of Richard's coronation, women and Jews were traditionally bond from the coronation ceremony, but some Jewish leaders brought gifts for the new king. According to Ralph, did, did chateau, who was dean of St. Paul's Cathedral, not the current suppose cathedral that's currently a London, the medieval one, I might add. Richards courtiers stripped, flogged on, expelled the Jews. And after that, a rumor spread that Richard had ordered all Jews to be killed. And the people of London attacked the Jewish population, leading to incredible violence. Many homes were destroyed and a number of Jews were forcibly converted. Some sought refuge in the Tower of London, whilst others tried to escape. There was some very high profile casualties among the dad was Joseph of Orlando. I respect a Jewish scholar. Roger of Holden. They 12th century historian, blamed jealous Londoners who didn't appreciate the commercial success of the Jewish community for the violence unclaimed that Richard punished the instigators, allowing converted Jews to return to Judaism. Richard feared the realm would be day stabilized when he left for the Crusades. And he was also angry at being disobeyed. So he ordered the execution of those responsible for the most high profile murders on prosecutions. And that included rioters or had accidentally burned down Christian homes. He issued a Royal writ ordering that GSB left unharmed, but it wasn't really followed and further violence occurred and creating a massacre at York. The violence has spread way beyond London at this point. On the Archbishop of Canterbury up the time SAD of Richard, if the king is not guardsman, he better be the devil's. I mentioned earlier Hi, on several occasions throughout his life, Richard was likened to the devil. Preparing to go on crusade was no small thing. It took a lot of planning and it took a lot of money. Richard and Philip agreed to go on the Third Crusade following Richard succession as king. Because basically each king fair that while he was away, the other one would steal his lands. And that was a pretty reasonable fear to have. Richard said about raising the vast amount of money needed. He used his father's Treasury, which had been filled by the solid and type a special tax to pay for the Crusades. He raised taxes and he agreed to release King William the first of Scotland, from his oath of subservience for 10 thousand marks, which was about £6,500. He also sold lands, positions, and privileges, basically anything he could sell. And he's believed to have sad, I would've so London, if I could find a buyer. Those already in posts basically had to pay to retain their offices. So William long shop, the Bishop of ALA, had to pay 3 thousand pines to remain on as Chancellor. He was actually at bed by Reginald the Italian, but his bed was refused, I imagine paying for public office. On the continent. Richard confirmed his father's appointment of William fits Ralph, our initial of Normandy, and appointed administrators and his other realms because who was going to be in charge while he was away was pretty important because that person could basically sees part while he was gone and the vacuum that would be left. In 1190 day, he left part of his army to guard his lands, and he set off on crusade and the summer. In England, he left behind regents who deploy Zai Hou was Bishop of Durham. William demand of over third Arlo of ethics, but he died and was replaced by good old William long jump. John began scheming against long shelf. We've heard earlier high, he used the fact that long shop didn't speak English against him. For example. Richard had some adventures and Sicily on his way to the Crusades, which would have repercussions well into the future. Richard and Phillip arrived in Sicily and September 11th, ninth day novice gets a bit complicated than it's all the bite the relationships between European royal houses here. So bear with me. The legal heir to Sicily was constants, who was wife of Henry the sixth, the Holy Roman Emperor. She had been usurped by her father, King William, The second cousin, time Christian Tinkercad and President Williams widow who happened to bait Richard sister Joan of England. He also withheld the money that Joe was owed from her husband's will. Retro demanded that his sister be released on given her inheritance. She was released on the 28th of September 1190, but whereby the money in October, the residence of Messina revolted because here were all these foreign soldiers turning up. This was not making everyone feel comfortable. So they demanded the foreign trips leave. Richard attacked and captured Messina on the fourth of October, 1190. He established best after looting and burning the sitting on that create attention with Philip. Tankers signed a treaty on the 4th of March, 1191. So don't receive compensation for her inheritance, but she didn't get her actual inheritance. Richard than Geoffrey, his second eldest brother's son, arthur of Brittany, as his heir. Timecode was to marry one of his daughters to Arthur when he came of age, Richard was given a sum of gold and he was to give that Goldbach if Arthur didn't marry one of bankruptcy daughters. Philip plotted with tanker against Richard at this point, and then the two kings met in private and Richard agreed to and his petroleum to Alice, which had been going on for quite some time. I was leading nowhere. Richard then became engaged to barren Garcia of Nevada, the daughter of Sanchez, the sixth of Nevada, and Sanchez called Castillo. We believe he actually liked her, which is unusual in a medieval royal marriage. He had met her at a tournament and they instantly got on April 11th, 91, Richard left Messina heading for Akron, but a storm dispersed his fleet. And further adventures were to follow. Richards. Adventures in Cyprus would also have far-reaching consequences. The ship carrying Joan and bearing Garcia anchored and Southern Cyprus. Unfortunately, the treasure ship with all the money was racked. Their prisoners were taken from the shipwrecks and **** by the ruler of Cyprus, Isaac come down notice on the 1st of May 1191, Richards fleet arrived at lemma sauce or modern dilemma zone. Princess of the Holy Land, Christian princes arrived to add Richard, if he would support gate of losing no against his rival, come out of mom for the local markets, abandoned Isaac. He prepared to make peace with Richard, but basically he changed his mind. Losing your lab Richards trips and conquered the island by the first of Jane 1191. Isaac surrendered on withheld and silver chance because Richard I promised not to put them in iron. Richard appointed governors on later. So the island to the master of the Knights Templar, the crusading order, Roberta sublime. In 1192, it was acquired or sold to get a lease. Now, Cyprus occupied a key strategic position with today, It's an important dialogue because it's between Europe and the Middle East, basically, crusader days, it was on right to the Holy Land, remainder Christian stronghold until the Ottoman invasion and 157 days for quite a considerable time. Richards military reputation was greatly enhanced by his conquest of Cyprus, and he also met financial gains from that, which was good because the treasure ship had been sunk. He left cyprus for acro, or modern-day ACA on the 5th of June, 1191. Let's talk a little bit about Richards marriage. Richard married bearing area before leaving Cyprus at the Chapel of some George and lemmas all on the 12th of May 1191 with his sister Joan and attendance, barren Garcia became queen of England. There were face-to-face and parades and ulnar of the wedding. Richard with still officially betrothed to Alice at the time though. Eleanor, however, approved the match as Navarro bordered Aquitaine and it basically secured her our southern border. Richard took the unusual step of taking barren getArea on crusade, but they went home separately. Barren Garcia had a very difficult journey. By the time she first saw England, Richard was dad. Their marriage was childless. There was no air of Richard the first, and that began the demise of the Anjum, an empire. After many adventures, Richard finally reached to the Third Crusade. He landed an Acura or ACA on the north coast of Israel on the anther of Jane 1191. And he gave his support to Gai of losing your knife. The leadership of the Crusades here as a fraught situation. And Richard as not on the most popular tame basically. But gay was the widower of Henry the seconds chasm, cerebella of Jerusalem. It was trying to retain the kingship of Jerusalem despite his wife's death a year earlier. His claim was challenged by column out of Mumford, who was the second husband of civility sister Isabella. He was supported by Philip the second of fronts because Louis the seven pub Bain has chasm, you nearly have to draw a little diagram to remember all this. Leopold the fifth Duke of Austria, also give his support to Conrad. Richard allied with Humphrey the fourth of Torah on as a balanced first husband who was loyal to gay or to guide, depending on whether you want to be a Francophile, are along the file, spoke fluent Arabic, so Richard used him as an interpreter on negotiator. He was a handy guide to have a rind. Richard had developed are now by that point on illness similar to scurvy, a very unpleasant thing with sore throat, vomiting, lack of energy, not nice. Nevertheless, his forces captured okra and one very Hollywood like story tells him picking off guards with a crossbow whilst being carried on a stretcher covered in a silken blanket. Conrad of Mumford concluded solid and surrender negotiations on Leopold of Austria. Wrist has Bonner alongside Richardson Phillips. Both kings constraint, this is October arrogance because they were rulers and their own right. Whereas Leopold was a bustle of the Holy Roman Emperor, and they considered him to be beneath them in terms of status. So Leopold left the crusade and a half when Richard ticked on his banner on shortly afterwards, Philip left and PR health, and he demanded half of Cyprus from Richard plus the kingship of Jerusalem. Richard suddenly finds himself with no allies, but 2700 Muslim hostages, again, solid and reneging on the terms of the surrender of opera. But he was very worried that these prisoners would slow down his forces when they needed to March. And so he ordered them to be executed. He then moves sites undefeated, solid. And at the Battle of our sooth on the 7th of September, 1191, November 1191, following the fall of Jaffa, the Crusaders advanced towards Jerusalem, ran on hailstorms, forced them to retreat to the coast. Richard tried unsuccessfully to negotiate with solid on and an 1190 to his troops were fortified OSC alone. I'm election amongst the Crusader leadership confirmed Conrad Montserrat as king of Jerusalem. So Richard had been on the wrong side of that particular tobacco. And Richard sold Cyprus to gay lease Neo. Only days later, on the 20th, febrile 1192, Carnot was stabbed to death by the assassins who were as Shia Muslim sect. It dies letter. Isabella married Richards nephew Henry the second if champion, who was the son of Maria France, who was Eleanor's daughter at, by Louis the seventh. And Isabella was pregnant with Conrad's child at the time. And it was widely believed that Richard has been involved in the murder of Conrad. Infighting and the Crusaders, definitely a problem in general. And 92, the Crusaders advanced against Jerusalem, but retreated due to quarrels amongst the army's leadership. There were two decided functions. Richard and others wanted to diminish sovereign's power base by attacking Egypt. Whereas here the logic of Burgundy, who was leader of the French contingent, favorite I direct assault on Jerusalem. Richard agreed to be part of an attack on Jerusalem, but only as a common soldier, not as a later. With a divided command, the Army was forced to retreat to the coast. Skirmishes with the Muslims continued through Baja Alden, who was a Muslim soldier on a biographer of solid and sad of Richard. I have been assured, but on that day, the King of England, Latin hand road along the whole length of our army from right to left. I'm not one of our soldiers left the ranks to attack him. The Sultan was rote. They're out and left the battlefield and anger. Even his animators are paying tribute to his ability as a military. Later, he's seen as a figure who struck all into the anime. Richard had no allies at this point. I'm morale and solid and camp was very low. It is in both their interests to start bringing the thing to a close, although solid and raise the fortifications that OSC alone, which Richard Henry belt, Richard failed and invading Egypt. Both Philip and John were basically taking advantage of Richard's absent. So he really needed to think about going home, richard and solid and reached a settlement on the second of September 1192, and at initiated a three-year truce. But all was not planned sailing. Richard was still ill with our knowledge yet, when he left for England on the ninth of October, 1192, bad weather forced him to land at Corfu on the ruler of Corfu, Isaac the second angle disapproved of Richard's takeover of Cyprus. Richard left core theory undisguised drastic as the Knight Templar with four companions. But we're ship wreck their echolalia and ethylene, which force tend to undertake a dangerous long journey. He had it for the safety of the territory of his brother-in-law, Henry, the line of Saxony, who was married to his sister Matilda, but was captured near Vienna before Christmas 1192 by Leopold of Austria, who accused him of having instigated the murder of his cousin, called out mm FRA, and he was also still teased author bite the whole having his banners taken down thing in Accra. Lia called imprisoned Richard at derm Stein council. Use reached England, but the king had been captured, but his location was unknown at that point. In captivity, he wrote the song Ya news on prayers. No man who has imprisoned. That was addressed, his half-sister Murray. The song has two versions, one in French, wanted all the time, and it portrays his feelings of abandonment, both by his sister and by His people. Detention of a crusader, violet and public law. So pope common time, the third x communicated Leopold, and it was no small thing to be excommunicated in the medieval world that basically cut him off from the European establishment. The 20th of March, 1193, Leopold, how did Richard over to his overlord, the Holy Roman Emperor Henry the SEC, who imprisoned him, trifles capital and southwestern Germany. Henry the SEC resented montage. Let's support for Henry the lion, who was married to Richard system Matilda. He also presented Richards recognition of time Krebs and Sicily. He needed money to raise an army to control southern escalate soap. He saw the opportunity to get a bit of cash and how it Richard for ransom. The Pope didn't excommunicate him as he had done with Leopold, which really annoyed Richard. Richard refuse to show any difference to Henry Sang, I am born of a rank which recognizes no superior but God. So no one is above. Richard bought God. Later, he would adopt us his motto, gear a Montoya, God on my right. And that remains the motto of the British monarchy, right to this very day. Richard's conditions were made worse after that and his chance where, in his words, so heavy that a horse or asked would have struggled to move under them. Unpleasant. That was out the suggestion of Philip IV drove who was the Bishop of Beauvais. I'm Richard did not forget this. He captured Philippa Dre and imprisoned him, and he was not actually afraid until after Richard staff. The ransom demand of Richard was more than three years worth of income for the whole realm of England. It was an excessive amount of money, but Eleanor zettabyte trying to raise it to get bought her favorite son. Clergy and layman were taxed a quarter of their proper date. Golden silver was taken from churches on new taxes were created. John and Philip offered Henry the SEC, the poetry Psalm of anti thighs and Marx, which was a lot of money but a lot less than he had asked for to hold wretched until Nicole must switch was the 29th of September. He refused. The ransom was raised and it was transported by Henry's ambassadors, but at Richards parallel. So f at a pain stolen or lost along the way, that would have rebounded on Richard and the honor Henry. On the 4th of February 1194, Richard was released. Philip set a message to John, looked to yourself, the devil is lease. Again, Richard band compared to the devil. Richards return wasn't like an all those Robin Hood movies where Richard the Lionheart returns and suddenly order is restored null as well against evil King John. Well, let's see. Richards absence. John Travolta, that of course with Philip said, I'm Philip had conquered Normandy. Richard forgive John and actually named him as his heir, replacing Arthur. All May 11th of March level 94, Richard was crying to Canton nullify the shape of his captivity because the thinking would have been in those dice. What kind of king gets himself captured? Knee meant to be a grit military mind. He needed a clean slip basically, Richard them began the reconquest of Normandy and he intended to vote his new chief defense portraits, the Chateau guy JAR on land hand, Philip had a great note to build on the terms of the treaty of Alluvial, which was signed in December 1195, the Archbishop of Rio was reluctant to sell this land to Richard, but when Philip besieged Omar and Normandy, retro just sees the site, the church was not pleased and place an introductory normally. We've seen when we talked about the murder of Thomas backup at an introductory, created serious problems. This case unburied bodies were left lying in the straight. This was not a situation that you want them to last. The deck was actually still in place when construction on the council began. It definitely doesn't stop retrofit built again, but Pope salad and the third repealed and April 1197, after Richard gifted lands to the church, so he basically buys his way out of that situation. Richard spend double on chateau guy Yara as he did on castles and England, but he didn't spend anywhere near as much as Henry the second countdown on building castles. The castle was completed in two years when a project on a similar scale would normally have taken ten years. According to the 12th century historian, William of Newberry, Richard and his work men were caught in a Schar where at random blood during the construction of the Council, which was seen as a really bad omen. It's thought that Richard was the council's architect, added a lot of his own flourishes to it. The Chateau guy became his favorite residents and he wrote Rats and charters there. And he actually called an open bellum costume day rupee, the beautiful castle of the rock. It was actually a century ahead of its time in terms of architecture. Richard band port is fortunate and to his struggles with Philip the Second over contested territories and old Zhou the VAX and on Barry. He formed an alliance against Philip, including Baldwin the 9th of Flanders rhino canopy Lauren, bearing areas. Father Sanchez, the sixth of Nevada. Richard secure the inheritance of the royal house of wealth and Saxony for his nephew, Matilda of England, son, who became Otto the fourth of Germany and 1198. So he's still playing the European par game. When Richard return from captivity and 1194, Philip had flat from him at fright about and has financial records and important documents have been saved by Richard. So he's vulnerable to Richard at that point. The bot lovely Store against Philip, Richard took the motto Jia a Montoya, which you can see pictured here still the module or the royal family of England last way part. Richard's death was infamous at crusader heroin military strategist killed by a guy with a frying pan. March 1199. Richard suppressed or revoked by vacant MR. the fifth of Limoges. It was lent, but according to ralph of COGS Hall, the historian, he devastated the icon slab with fire and sword, and that was something you should not have done during lactation, have refrained from violence during land. He besieged the small unarmed castle of shallow Chabra. We don't really know why he did this because it seemed to be beneath him to attack such a target. It was possibly due to local rumors that there was a Roman treasure there. All the 26th of March, 1199, he came across are at the hands of a boy who has different names and different sources. He's variously called Pierre Bezier, John Sabratha due to a Bertrand girdle, girdle and bag but neighboring village. This boy was holding a crossbow and one hand and using a frying pan, that shield and another because there was just chaos going on in the castle. It was unarmed. He just had to grab something to defend himself. He shot the crossbow when he hit Richard and the shoulder on the wound turned gangrenous. Richard summon the shader, who told him that his father and two brothers had died at Richard's hands and he wanted revenge and he fully expected to be executed. Thought Richard applied, live on, by my Bundy, behold the light of day, and he gave the boy a 100 shillings. Richard died and his mother's arms on the 6th of April, 1199. It was sad of his demise. The lion by the aunt was slim. They also Town warrior McCarty, hard Richards, assassin flight and hiring pretty much as soon as Richard died, rendering his last act of mercy completely void. Richards heart was buried rule in Normandy, his anti-realism and shallow where he died and the rest of him on his father's fate, very symbolic in front of Robbie and OCI. In 2012, scientists discovered that Richard hearts had been embalmed and frankincense, which is of course, symbolically associated with the breath of Christ, gold frankincense, and myrrh for having been the gifts given to Christ by the wise men from the East. 19. Magna Carta: So King Richard was succeeded by his brother John as the new king of England. And under John's role, a very important document was signed, a document that would become foundational and English history, but also in the histories of other parliamentary democracies throughout the world. And that document was known as Magna Carta or the grit charter. Magna Carta was a charter of English liberties granted by King John on the 15th of June, 1215, signed at a place called running mate. John had faced a revolt from his barons and the threat of a Civil War, which he wanted to avert. So he needed to concede some rights to the barons. The importance of Magna Carta was that that may add to the king subject to law and no longer an absolute monarch, he could do anything he wanted. So it was a very big shift and thinking towards kingship. It also granted liberties to the so-called free man. And so it is a foundational document for the rights of the individual. And that's very much seen in English and an American law, right the way through to today. It was not strictly adhere to at the time by either John or the barons, but it still proves a very important document and it shows up very big change of mindset. So the background to Magna Carta, hide it. This pivotal document camera bite. Well, let's go back in time a bit to see what had come before William the Conqueror had established an absolute par over England, including over the barons who had supported him. And the nobility were always an awake position in regard to the monarch who could ask them for any amount of money, who could punish them severely if they were saying to be traceless, for example, the other par and society that potentially could have been a threat to the power of the monarch was the church. William the Conqueror had weakened the power of the papacy over the English church to give himself more par, Henry the first he was forced to make concessions to the borrower in Santa Clara Jay, he issued a Charter of Liberties on his succession in 1100 miles. It didn't go quite as far as Magna Carta. But at set up this tradition of English kings, kings of England, because of course at this period in history, they were mostly French rather than English. But kings of England would then issue a charter of rights. As part of their correlation. Stephen took part at 1135 and he found himself in a struggle with Matilda for the throat, as we've heard before. In order to garner support, he made promises regarding the government of both church and state. Then Henry the second succeeded Steve and at 1154 and he promised to restore unconfirmed liberties, which had been granted by Henry the first, and I quote to God and Hawaii church and all his Arles to Behrens on all his man. You'll notice that focus on the nobility here, on the rights of the nobility, rather than maybe of those of a lower social standing. But still this is a big move. Henry the seconds ran. And in 1189, with two major deficiencies in English law, there were no clearly defined financial liabilities between Barnes on the crime and no definition of the rights of justice that balance, however, their own subjects. Everybody was basically making it up because nothing was written down on a great team that met that the barons could potentially face a great disadvantage in relation to the monarch. The crowd grew more powerful, supported by judges, finance hears and Clark's, and the barns were aware of their relative weakness to the crowd. The nobility also fast huge tax increases, especially during the reign of Richard the first he needed to fund going on the third Crusade, who had a massive ransom that needed to be paid for, and also had ongoing wars with Philip the Second of France, all of which costs on awful lot of money. So when John excited and 1199, he faced the consequences of all these problems that had gone before. He also faced a rival claim to the throne, coming from Arthur of Britain, who was the son of his elder brother Jeffrey. And Philip the Second of France, was pretty determined at this point to add the on-chip and tenure of Normandy and Norman Davis, where a lot of John's cash was coming from and securing his car on the continent. He was facing some big problems. And the last thing he wanted was a civil war with these disgruntled barons. Breaking with the precedent that had been set, John did not issue a charter of rights as part of his car and nation. But what did happen was that. Up North Hampton, they Archbishop of Canterbury, Hubert Walter Johnson, Pfizer, William Marshall, as well as the judiciary. Jeffrey fits Peter promised them ability on behalf of the king who happened to be in front. So at the time, which is where kings of England spends a lot of time in this period of history, that he would give H their rights if they would keep fifth and paste with him. So that was the do you stick by me and I will grant you the rights that you would have had under Henry The first. By 12 Irwin, the RLS pretty much refuse to go to the continent unless John promised their rights. So the relationship is deteriorating and they're failing their relative weakness and the king is having too much power. In 1204, John lost Northern day. So the angela, an empire is beginning to break up. It doesn't have so much power on the continent or some much money coming in from the continent. So his income at this point is coming from England alone. And he wanted to be able to collect more revenue there. And remember, under his brothers rope, the nobility had already forked ICT considerably at which they weren't happy about. Hate demanded what was known as skewed edge quite frequently and sketch was money paid in lieu of military service if you didn't want to go off and fight, has continental wars, you have to put some money in the kitty. Happened to ride this time, but Pope Innocent the third, I placed an interdict on England over John's opposition to the appointment of Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury. We've seen before that when an interdict is placed on a country, this is not a nice situation. The dad or left, I'm buried in the straight people can't get married. Babies Count, be Christened. Everyday life kind of comes to a halt. So it wasn't a good situation and it left the church vulnerable to John's financial demands, actually, so that everybody could move forward. John was actually excommunicated and 1209, which as I've mentioned in an earlier video, was pretty much been cut off from the European community. That left him with ICT, some of his key administrators. When John mid pace with the church on Stephen Langton was eventually appointed as Archbishop of Canterbury. He became a key figure in the following unrest. Yes, Stephen Langton was an opponent of Jones, liked and wanted a solemn grant of liberties from the king based on the correlation chart or off Henry the first. All of these things lead to the grit charter, or a Magna Carta of 1215, the 100th anniversary of which was celebrated in 2015, which some of you may remember, of course, an initial draft of Magna Carta was rad. It's an Alban Sabi and 1213, the historians, they are kept detailed accounts of the events preceding the ceiling of Magna Carta, which is why we know so much a bidet. These records show that John realized he would have to grant free election to ecclesiastical offices. He couldn't maintain power over the church and make the barons demands. Linkedin on William Marshal or the Pembroke had difficulty and convinced saying some of the more extreme barons to negotiate somewhere came to launch a military battle. They really wanted a fight with John, which was the last thing that John Walter, on the 15th of June, 1215, the Articles of the Barons, where a grade two and sat with a king sale. So this is basically detailing what the barons wanted from the King. And it became the document upon which the initial draft of Magna Carta was forged in the discussions at running mate, which running made in case you're interested or you ever want to visit. It's an important place in world history, is between Windsor and stance. So the final version of mitochondria, while there would be reissues, but the final version of the 1215 draft of Magna Carta was a great biking down on the balance on the 1900's, June 1215, there were compromises, but the document brought up by judicial reforms on changes and local administration. It really did have an impact on the ground. In other words, john basically signed because he wanted to avoid a civil war. Some clauses and effects allied his subjects to declare war on him. So he's given away a lot of par, a particularly contentious clause was clause 61. It required the barns to choose 25 representatives as and I quote here, a form of security to ensure the preservation of the rights and liberties of Magna Carta. Today, of course, we have a parliamentary democracy where different constituencies vote for an MP to represent them. So the idea of having representatives go spot care to 1215. John completely hit at this clause, clause 61 because it limited his part basically. It also convey the barns right to stand against an overlord if he broke a contract. John Kempe do whatever he wants and change his mind about things anymore. Or the barons have a legitimate legal right to rebel. The cause demonstrates a huge change of thinking about the role of the monarch. Clause 61 was actually emitted from revised versions of the Charter, which will say there were three that followed the original edition of the charter when Henry the third was deposed and the Barons War Johnson, of course, and 1264, it served as a precedent for attempting to control the king. So the big point I'm trying to get across here is the king is no longer the absolute par. So I mentioned there that there were reissues of Magna Carta, all of which contains some changes. And those changes are quite interesting. That they show what areas of life are contentious and where compromises needed to be raised or things needed to be clarified and medieval society. King John actually died in October 1216. Maybe Louis de France was trying to gain control of England with the support of rebel barons. John successor Henry the third used Magna Carta on reissued it on the 12th of November to try and recall the nobility to ally with their rightful king. He's making the Magna Carta requires that you give me your loyalty and return for these rights, that there are responsibilities on both sides. The 1216 reassured was only 42 clauses long, as opposed to the original 63. The console emitted causes referring to temporary matters that really weren't of interest anymore. And those that might limit its ability to raise money for the war that was coming up. The church was again promised general freedom, but the clause allowing the church to have free election for its officers, walls omitted. So it's not been given total freedom on the Monarch still has some power there. The re-issued, like the original MD to be definitive statement of feudal law, written laws. This reassure address things that haven't been covered but needed to be talked about, such as some doubts regarding inheritance law and what the age of majority walls for coming into your inheritance. And that was decided to be 21. The console stated the emissions were being held for further consideration. In other words, we've laughed somethings like because we're still thinking about them, but they were never litter replaced in any later issues of Magna Carta. The next we issue of Magna Carta came in autumn 1217. By that stage, and it had been reexamined clause by clause on several changes. Happy bid. For example, a size justices were to visit the showers once Anjali instead of four times because that was just much more practical. They'd st holidays, things were working. And where are the changes needed to be made, which had been omitted. And the 1216, she was questioned again and it was decided to revert to the system that had been in place under a Henry. The second three new clauses dealt with important issues of the day. One bank, the possibility of landowners giving away so much of their land that the remainder wasn't sufficient for them to serve their lord or our Kp, the barons. Cathy's fo basically, they covered the issue of Frank pledge, which was the responsibility to keep the pace, which was mostly own lower classes. But it was supposed to pertain to everybody. And it was the first attempt to deal with more demand law. Mortal men, literally meaning dad had not met when lands were left to corporations, especially monstrous. Thus, the income went ICT of the barons hands. Section seven of this reissued doubt entirely with Forest Law and royal lands. So it was becoming clear by this point that no one document could contain the full scope of English law and everything that needed to be addressed. 1225, the young king, Henry the third, had only just been declared to be of age by the Pope at old enough to make legal decisions, re-issued Magna Carta. There were only minor changes from the 1217 issue, possibly because the console felt, but maintaining the charter as sort of progressing and evolving law code was not really practical by the state. But by 1225, the Magna Carta was not just a aerobic, it was seen as an important symbol against oppression. And it was quoted when liberties were threatened, that actually lasted for centuries. In fact, the petition of rights and 1628, the Habeas Corpus Act of 1679, derived from clause 39 of the 1215 Magna Carta. That important closed set. No free man shall be arrested or imprisoned, or decided or upload or exiled, or in any way victimized. Neither will we attack him or sad anyone to attack him, except by the lawful judgment of his peers or by the law of the land. That signs so obvious and our society that you can't just arrest someone because you feel like it. But actually this was a pretty important statement and its day and this passage which actually serve as the conditional expression. The whole idea of due process and Anglo-American jurisprudence actually went from England and to the British colonies, became a way of thinking that's passed into other parts of the world. Magna Carta actually influenced the Constitution of the United States of America, which was signed in 1789. It's Bill of Rights signed in 1791, and it's 14th amendment signed in 1868. That amendment was really about the rights of black paper on slaves who had been freed after the American Civil War. Magna Carta, not just important in England for original copies of the 1215 chart are actually still exist. Two of them are held in their original locations, and Lincoln and salts break cathedrals. The other two are in the British Library. The Lincoln charter is the most complete and in the best state of repair. Also, unlike you can find the 1225 Forest Charter. Forest charters are important in that forest laws were big way, but the monarch made money. So again, attitudes towards the monarch can be saved by rating those charters. Durham Cathedral has copies of the 121612171225 charters and the forest charters of 12171225. If you're interested in law on the development of law, those are some good places to visit. 20. Edward I (Longshanks): No, it just hasn't been possible to talk about average plantar Jeanette King. Otherwise, this course would just never end. But here was one. I really couldn't leave white. Edward the first known as long shanks. And if Richard the Lionheart lives on and legend as a hero, AdWord is just the opposite. Long shanks as the ultimate a villain, especially if you happen to be Scottish or you're a big fan of the movie Braveheart. But how accurate are these depictions? Here is Edward the first long shanks as depicted in the 1900's five movie, Braveheart, where he's played by Patrick Milligan and seen as being crew, despotic, tyrannical, high triazole this well, there is some truth to that. He was a bad tempered mind and he could be quite cruel as we'll see. But some important things happened during his reign, but still impact on us today, especially in relation to the law onto Parliament. As we'll find ICT. Edward the first was known as long shanks because he was six foot two tall. I'm in medieval times that was incredibly unusual and they had him practically a giant and people are actually scared of him because of it. So the term long shanks means long lags. Basically. He's also referred to as the hammer of the Scots as oh God was not a nickname given to him during his own lifetime. He became known as not in the 16th century. He was born in the night between the 17th and 18th of June 1239, and he lived until the 7th of July, 1307. He was the first son of Henry the Third, who was the son of King John. The previous two kings hadn't Bain that grit up their jobs. I think it's fair to say 1259, he briefly sided with the barons against his father and supporting the provisions of Oxford, which thought the rights of barons to representation and the king's governments, that caused a bit of bad feeling as though he was eventually reconciled with his father and he remained loyal during the second Barnes war. He was captured at the Battle of Lewes in 1264, but escaped and to faded the balance later, Simon De Montfort at the Battle of Actium and 1265, which was a very significant victory. He went to the ninth crease said, and on the way home he learned that his father had died. He stayed away from England for two years and was later crimes at Westminster Abbey. He reformed royal administration on English common law. And that is where his ran had the most impact and the most far-reaching impact anyway, and that it's still impacts life and the UK today. He's mostly remembered for his military campaigns there, including his conquest of whales. In previous videos, we've talked a bit about the relationship between England and continental Europe, especially France, because of the Norman kings and the adjuvant kings. In this video, we're going to say the relationships between England, Wales, and Scotland come a little bit more to the fore. Edward was actually invited to Scotland to set with succession dispute, but then he can suzerainty over Scotland. In other words, he may have an attribute tree state to England before Edwards time by having two separate steps coexisting peacefully. There was, of course, a war resulting from Adwords auctions continued well after his death. He also fought with France, which has waves saying English kings tended today. When Philip the fourth of France confiscated the Duchy of gaskin a, which had been under his rule. So the ontogenetic European holdings are really starting to dwindle by this point in history, although AdWord dead recover gas cutting, funding his military campaigns necessitated ex girl ratio of taxation. And he faced resistance from both the charts on the laity and the 129 days. Edward long shanks, the famous villain. Whenever you see him depicted in Hollywood movies, what was he like in person? Well, you can see from this picture of him to the right. He was very tall. He had that kind of radish blonde hair that we associate with the Ponto Janet's on the fair skin. He was six foot two, which we've mentioned before, very told by medieval standards, hence the epithet, long shanks are long legs, but more than that, his height mid him intimidating people were actually, I'm a little scared of him. Although he did embody the medieval idea of kingship, he did everything that has people would've expected of him. He was a soldier out an administrator on a competent administrator on the bike Christian or a sensibly so and he did go on crusade. He like other members of his family that we've seen before. A terrifying temper though, which, as we've mentioned, in combination with his height, met him fairs. And it was actually sad. But when the Dean of St. Paul's went to confront Edward over high taxes and 1295, he actually failed on dad and the King's presence. So terrified walls hate. When the future Edward the second, Edward the first son, demanded the Alden for his favorite pairs, Galveston, whom Edward the first time exiled. Edward actually tore handfuls of his hair. 1260 for the song of loose comparative to a leopard, meaning he was powerful but unpredictable. He was a competent administrator, as we've mentioned. So if he wasn't entirely adored by the population, he was respected. He also give alms, generously, gave money to the poor and that helped and the popularity sticks. One thing he was very interested in, where the king Arthur stories in much the same way as his father had been obsessed with Edward, the confessor. King Arthur stories were a huge cultural phenomenon all over Europe during the Middle Ages, actually for centuries, but especially during the reign of Edward the first. And what's interesting in the figure of King Arthur wolves, he was the king all Britain. As we know, AdWords conquered whales, and also took over Scotland. And so he's aiming for the same kind of status as King Arthur. Basically. He did several interesting things around the sort of cult of Arthur. In 1278, he opened what was believed to be the grave of Arthur. And whenever your glass and break API, which is pictured beneath. Now, I've been there a couple of times on, it's very interesting to say, but it was not the real graph of Arthur and Guinevere for two reasons. One, they were fictional characters, legendary characters. Number two, the lettering that they found on the grave, which said the EEOC at our tourists quantum rx, rx clay futuro says Here lies Arthur, the Once and Future King. The Lateran, didn't belong to the period in which King Arthur was believed to have lived around the fourth century. It was much more contemporary. It's pretty much accepted that the monk is basically made up the story to boost the terrorist tread. Still part of the tourist trade and Glastonbury, right the way to this very day you go to Glastonbury, copy on someone drafts as a monk will show you Robbins and tell you these stories. Anyway. He also recovered the so-called Arthur's cron from the Welsh Lord well and at Griffith. And he bought castles which were incorporated Arthurian motifs in their design on their location. So when we see TV shows like Maryland that are based on the Arthurian myth, the castles. And they're shows often hark back to the 13th century, rather than way back to the legendary time of King Arthur. Basically, this is the period that we think of when we think of once upon a time. Edward also held Ron table events and 12841302, which featured feasts on tournaments. Very like the kinds that we find and stories like Sir Gawain and the Green Knight for example, which has a huge Christmas faced in it. Chroniclers compared Edward and his court to Arthur uncommon lot, and that was a massive PR when for the king. He actually used the Arthurian myth. She has own political ads, including justifying his conquest of whales, as we've heard before. Let's find a little bit about AdWords early life. We know that he was born in the night on either the 17th or 18th of June 1239. Great way to have two birthdays dots, because either die could be your birthday. His father was Henry the third on his mother was Eleanor of Provence. Henry the third was a big fan of Edward the confessor. Because you may have asked yourself, well, why is Edward the first known as Edward the first one there was a previous king Edward. Well, we don't really start numbering kings until William the Conqueror. Know I, Edward was a very Anglo-Saxon Nam, hence it hadn't been used by our plantar Gillette before. We have at this point in history had it king AdWords. But at the time of Edward the first, it was a pretty uncommon name for a king. He was cared for by huge effort, who is father of the future chancellor Godfrey Giffords. But sadly, Hugo for dyed and 1246 on so Bartholomew patch, I took over Edwards care at that point. He was a sickly child but he grew into strong adult or a big strapping loud, as they would say in the North of England. He spoke with a lisp apparently, but he could be very persuasive. When he was 15, he was betrothed to Eleanor, who was the 13-year-old half sister of our phones with a 10th of Costello. That was because Henry the third was afraid that Castiel would invade gasket, which was then under his rule. Adwords wedding present was pretty impressive because his wedding land-grant included the greater part of Ireland, London, Wales, and England, and the Alden of Chester. But in reality, it was Henry the third who derive the income from these lands. And he kept control of them. So it was pretty much a nominal thing though Edward was pretty young at the time. Adwords on Eleanor ended up having 14 children. Five daughters survived to adulthood, but only one son lived, Edwards, and that was his son, Edward the second. From 125457, adverb became influenced by his mother's family. This avoids, especially his great uncle pay to the second of Savoy. He also associated with his father's half-brothers, known as the plot of an or losing young faction. Now these people were foreigners and so they were hit hard by the English bonds. And that was a core issue. And the coming peroneal reform movement. Edward, the reason yawns were rumored to carry out violent misconduct, violent Bob behavior. And so his character was called into question right from his youth, his temper and volatility were a bit of a problem. In May 1258, AdWords stood against the provisions of Oxford, which sought to reform Henry's government and attacked his relatives losing yarns. The reform movements actually succeeded in limiting the power of losing your eventually Edward men alliance with one of the key reformers, Richard declare the sick of Gloucester and not hot. And in March 1259, so basically he's jumped ship and change sides. On the 15th of October, 1259, Edward analyze to support for the barns on their leader Simon De Montfort. So he's not in conflict with his father. This may have been because Edward needed Montfort support and gas Guinea, but we're not entirely sure why he did this. Henry the third left for fronts and November 1259, Edward's behavior while he was away mad, Henry believed he was planning a coup d'etat because adword bids several appointments to advance the reformers. So I agree was handwrite, but he refused to see his son when he returned. But mediation by the RL of Cornwall says the Archbishop of Canterbury eventually brought about a reconciliation between the two. Nevertheless, Edward was sent abroad and the fabric 1260 here again allied with losing, who had been exiled to from AdWords ended up falling out with some of the loose and y'all over financial issues and 1262, well, money is an issue that breaks up many families. In 1263, Henry sent him to Wales to campaign against the well and aggressive. And at that point in history he had limited results. Around this time, Simon De Montfort return to England after a two-year absence. And so the peroneal reform movement kicked. And again, the Kings seemed to bite to give n and appease the barons when AdWords stepped in to decisively defend his father's royal rights. Having sided West the barons previously. He not completely a pastor sizes and he's very pro royalist, which is N his own and pressed when you think about it. Joining with those he had previously alienated, such as his cousin on childhood friend Henry of all man, I'm John Doerr, the sixth RL of sorry. He took Windsor Castle from the rebels. Yes, that Windsor Castle, where the royal family still live today. Louis the Ninth of France arbitrary did an agreement called the maze of Amiel on the 23rd of January, 1264, but it was pretty pro loyalist and it led to further conflict. A conflict known as the second barons were, which was fought from 1264 to 1267. Simon De Montfort, lab peroneal forces against the king's forces. The first battle, Edward retook Gloucester from the barons. So it starts out well for the royalists, the rebels were aided by Robert to Pharaoh's the six Arlo Darby, with whom Edward negotiated a trace but thought trace later Brooke done. Edward then captured North Hampton from Simon De Montfort the younger, the sum of Simon De Montfort and fought against the airlift derbies lands. The Battle of Lewes on the 14th of May, 1264. Edward was actually prevailing and doing well, but he unwisely pursued Montfort is retreating forces. And upon returning to the battlefield, find that the royalist army had been defeated. Adwords on Henry of all men were taken as hostages. Edward was detained until March 1265 on when he was left ICT. He was kept under surveillance following his release, so he's not really free. He's being watched at home. He escaped on the 20th of May and he joined with Gilbert, declare the seventh airlift Gloucester. If you had the effect of to the royalists side, Edward took WR on Gloucester easily due to De Montfort dwindling support. Montfort formed an alliance with the Welsh Llewellyn. They move east to join young Simon development. Edward surprised young Montfort app Kenilworth castle, and then cut off the RL of laughter and turns the tide towards the royalists. There then follow the Battle of Actium on the 4th of August, 1265. Montfort was killed and his body was horribly mutilated by Edwards forces. Fighting continued after Mumford staff. A Christmas 1265, Edward came to terms with a young Montfort, the barons, that in March he led a successful attack on the sink ports and can't suffix add Westlake key strategic ports. Some of the rebels remained and the impregnable fortress of Kenilworth picture below, until the dictum of Kenilworth, which was signed on the 31st of October, 1266. And at him to reconcile the barons with the king. Edward pretty much had little to do with the peace negotiations as he was at that point preparing to go on crusade. Let's talk a little bit about AdWords, time on crusade. Edward took the cross, meaning that you intended to go on crusade was an elaborate ceremony. On the 14th of June, 1268, along with his brother Edmund crutch back and Henry of all men. Raising the necessary money though, was a problem. Louis the Ninth of France, who was the later of the crusade, supplied alone, but it wasn't enough money. So the laity were faced with a crusade related tax for the first time since 1237. Parliament agreed to raise taxes to fund the crusade. And 1270, if Henry The third would reaffirm Magna Carta, unrestricted Jewish Money-Laundering. Edward sale to frogs on the 20th of August, 1270. Other we're not completely starting at the numbers. It's thought that he took 225 nights and less than a man. So it wasn't a large force, although a medieval knight was a one man tank, basically. In fact, the armor and weaponry on horse of light would be worth a byte, 500 thousand pines, 0.5 million in today's money. The original plan was that the Crusaders would relieve acro, but Louis the Ninth was diverted to China's, which he and his brother Charles val2 antenna to attack and occupy and create a Christian stronghold there. The plan failed when the French crusaders was struck by an epidemic, and Louis actually died from the epidemic on the 25th of August, 1270. By the time Edward arrived and China's Charles had a grade to trade date with the mirror. And the Crusaders then decided to return to Sicily. A storm on the coast of Sicily, near the new French King Philip the third, I'm Charles, decide to give up the compound. Other AdWord was resolved to continue fighting with them. And he reached okra on the ninth of May, 1271. Jerusalem had fallen and 1244, I'm so basically Akron was the man Christian stronghold at the time. It was under threat from the Muslim states who were being led by, by bars the Sultan of Egypt. Edwards forces pretty much doesn't stand a chance against the bigger and better trained forces that were coming against them. Initial read and June 1271 proved to be pretty pointless. In November, Edward lead a failed attack on cocoon, which he had hoped would breach his way to Jerusalem, but that didn't work out. In May 1272 to the third of Cyprus, who was the nominal king of Jerusalem, find a 10-year trace with by bars. Again, Edward wanted to continue fighting until he faced an assassination attempt. And Jane 1272, which was thought to being ordered by, by bars. Edward left Akron on the 24th of September 1272 and he went to Sicily. It was there that he learned that his father had died on the 16th of November, 1272. So he was Night King of England. But he didn't hurry home to England, partly because he was ill and also because the country was stable under the government of a console, which was led by Robert burnout, the Archbishop of Canterbury, who would serve as Edwards Chancellor for many years. But like being Prime Minister today, edward traveled home overland via ethylene, France, and he visited Pope Gregory the 10th. On the way. He finally reached England on the second of August, 1274, and he was crowned on the 19th of August. Let's talk a little bit about AdWords and Wales. Noel enough Griffith had benefited from the second Barons War. He had taken land and he'd become recognized as Prince of Wales. New Allan's brother David carried out an assassination attempt against him. And when that didn't go to plan, he defected to the English. And 1272, Llewellyn refused to do homage to Edward, who was harboring the brother who tried to kill him. Fair enough. Llewellyn farther provoked adword with his plant marriage to Eleanor, who was the daughter of Simon De Montfort. War was declared in Nevada at 1276. Although thought point Llewellyn didn't completely have the support of the Welsh Edwards invasion force of July 1277. Oxygen included 9 thousand Welshman amongst his 15,500 strong RNA. There were no major battles as Llewellyn surrendered. The Treaty of Abercrombie was signed and 1277, which laughter, well, and with only Gwinnett and the title of Prince of Wales. Warburg began and 12, and when English attempts to impose English law on the Welsh meant that there was no greater support for what had become seen as a war of national identity. For AdWords, it was a war of conquest. He wanted to take over whales. That was triggered by David's rebellion. So Darfur was unhappy with the settlement that advert have given him. In 1277, Llewellyn and other Welsh leaders joined with doffed to rebel against the English, had some initial success and cleaning the defeat of the art of Gloucester at candelas. For, I'm very sorry that was not pronounced well, you can probably tell by my surname that I have some Welsh blood, but I have to say the double L and wealth plan, I find a little bit difficult, so apologies to Welsh listener. Jump pack him. The Archbishop of Canterbury was in the middle of peace negotiations when link to Tanna, who lab Edwards forces that angle C launched a surprise attack. The English were defeated by the Welsh with heavy losses. At the bottom of Muammar Gaddafi was killed at the Battle of R1 bread. David was then captured and Jane 1282, completing AdWords, conquest of granite. And the next autumn, David was executed as a traitor. Actuaries ray and the execution withheld for traders walls really gruesome. Here it's described. Daphne was dragged through the streets of Shrewsbury, attached to a horse's tail, then hanged alive, revived than dissembled with his entrails burned before him for his sacrilege and committing the crimes and the wake of Christ's passion. And then his body cut into four quarters for plotting the King's death. That was known as being hung, drawn and quartered where you were hung until you were nearly dead and then work it up enough to experience your bile is being uptight than cutting four pieces of your head would probably be kept just to deter other enemies completely. Grayson, AdWord put down rebellions and Wales and T12 8780 it on again and 1294. So the Welsh don't submit easily. And 1284 of the statue of Islam Incorporated whales as an English territory with an English system of administration. English law applied to criminal offenses and Wales, but the Welsh dead keep their own property laws. After 1283, adverb began a full-scale English settlement of whales. That wasn't way to really make an English by having English people live there. So during this time he created the tons of Flynn wetland, an arborist web. They were protected by defensive walls on the Welsh actually weren't allied to 11 them. Castles were both through ICT whales, which introduced arrow slits and concentric castles. And those were designs which Edward may have seen when he was on crusade and the Middle East. So there's little arrow slits that knew quite often associate with medieval castles where you can shoot out at your animate, but they can't really throw anything at you. Edwards castles were basically a stamp of authority on the landscape and they referenced the Byzantine Roman Empire. And King Arthur, 1284. Edward's son, Edward, who would later become Edward the second, was born and Carnarvon castle, and he was the first English heir apparent to be invested as Prince of Wales. And 1301, of course, write to this day, heirs apparent to the English throne are known as the prince or the Princess of Wales. At the time that I record this, Prince Charles is Prince of Wales. Outside his own island. Adwords foreign policy was very much influenced by one thing and that was crew said favor at this point in history. And 1287, Edward took the cross GAD other, he never actually ended up going on crusade in his crusade plans and formed his foreign policy right the way through 1291. He tried to prevent conflicts between the major European horses and origin to promote a Europe wide movement that supported a crusade. That made him a bit of a diplomat on the continent. At the time, there was a major conflict between the French occupation heights of all Zhu, and the Spanish kingdom of Aragon. And it had the potential to turn into a full-scale European war, which Edward wanted to avoid. So he brokered a trace and Paris and 1286 in 1291, the Mamluks captured Acrobat, the last Christian stronghold in the Holy Land, putting pay to AdWords, plans to go on crusade. That changed Edwards role within Europe quite a lot. He stops being a diplomat. He's quite often on aggressor. In 1278, he removed, looked at Tammy from his role as social and gaskets. And he actually stayed and gas guinea himself for almost three years from 1286. Gasket walls within the kingdom of France, making adword a vassal of the new French king Philip the fourth. In 1294, AdWord refused to appear before a Philip, which he was sort of oblige today. When a conflict between English gaskin and French sailors resulted in the capture of friendships. The second of the important French port of La Rochelle. Retaliation, Philip declared gasket a four-foot. Let's talk a bit about Edwards second marriage. On the 20th of November at 1298, Edwards beloved wife, Eleanor of Castiel died on Haidt was grief stricken. In 1294. Edward agreed tomorrow, Philip, sister Margaret, but war with France delayed the marriage. Advert made a shaky alliance with the king of Germany on the kinds of Flanders and gathers, as well as bargain day to attack France. He was facing trouble on many sides at the time. He had trouble at home in England and Wales and Scotland. So he's basically fighting at home and fighting all his neighbors. When he sailed for Flanders and 1297, his allies had already been defeated. Job support that did not materialize on Edward was forced to seek pays. His marriage ends the war. In 1299. Edward and Margaret of France went on to have three children, two sons and a daughter who very sadly died at the age of five. Many Englishman considered the war to being pointless, expensive, and it caused some disgruntled. We think of AdWord as the hammer of the Scots. And when he appears in popular culture as quite often in the context of the stories of William Wallace or Robert the brace. So let's look at the things that AdWord did in Scotland. The 12 aunties, England and Scotland, co-existed peacefully. They were neighboring distinct kingdoms. In 1278, Alexander the Third of Scotland paid homage to his brother-in-law AdWords. He was married to Edward sister, but only for lands that he held in England, not for Scotland. When Alexander died and 1219, his heir was his three-year-old granddaughter, Margaret, known as Margaret the mid of Norway, because she was the daughter of the King of Norway. She was betrothed to AdWords son Edward of Carnarvon. Sadly, that was not to be, Scotland was not to be ruled by England as a consequence of this March. That was not what was intended at that time. Margaret very sadly died and 1290, at the age of only seven on the way to Scotland from Norway, and she died on the Scottish island of Orkney. This triggered a succession crisis, which became known as the grit calls. As we've seen before. There was nothing like a succession dispute to cause total instability. And a country. At this time, 14 contestants came forward. But the final contest was between John volleyball on Robert debris. That's Lord of anodal. If you're thinking, I just don't know how to spell brace. This is not that Robert Bob Rice. This is his grandfather that we're talking about at this point. A 104 auditors would decide the outcome and AdWord was asked to oversee the proceedings as a sort of impartial observer on someone to sort of M say the ceremony, as it were. 40 auditors were appointed by Vallejo, 40 vibrates on 24 by AdWord from amongst the Scottish political classes. How is it fair if you're a lied to appoint the people who are there to vote. Well, it's not really, but this was not during the time of democracy as we know it today. At Burnham, Edward has started the FPS at the dispute, he must be recognized as Scotland's feudal overlord. Not that would mark a significant change and the relationship between England and Scotland, which have been separate independent nations on my AdWords, won't England to be superior. So naturally the sculpt weren't happy. But with AI a monarch, the country was in trouble. Nobody had the power to appoint a king. So the situation hot debate result. The competitors grade that Scotland should be governed by AdWords until a king was chosen. After a lengthy hearing, advertise volleyball on the 17th of November, 1292. Thought, despite valuable succession, Edward continued to start authority in Scotland. Although the skulls objected. He heard appeals on Cases ruled on by Scotland's interact them Court and direct them meaning between kings, he's acting and a legal position and Scotland, like he has a right to be involved in government there that obviously caused grievances. In a case brought by McDonald's, the son of Malcolm the Second who was Edward commanded volleyball to appear before the English Parliament. And that was a real provocation because it was saying that Edward have the right to judge belly all. And it was also saying that the English Parliament. Was the ultimate authority and Scottish law, this was not good as the Scots. Edward also demanded the Scottish magnets provide military service during his war with France. Actually discussed, got annoyed and they actually allied with France on a tucked Carlisle edward that invaded Scotland and took barrack upon tweet and a particularly violent attack, and 1296, in which 15 thousand times people were killed, embark upon tweet throughout history has sometimes been scattered, sometimes be English. He crushed skull dish resistance at the Battle of Dunbar. He also did something very symbolic and taking the stone of scone, also known as the stone of destiny. What shows the Scottish coronation stone, which basically implies that he had the right to be overlord of Scotland. And he placed it in Westminster Abbey and what is now known as AdWords chair. I'm not as thrown on which British monarchs are still cried. And Elizabeth, the second to the last monitor tipping cried upon the chair, which is pictured here beneath the stone of scone, is underneath the part of the chair where you sit. It's like part of the structure of the chair. Edwards opposed Valeo and locked him up in the Tower of London as if he were a subject, not the king of another country. And he'd been appointed Englishman to govern Scotland. Now, let's talk about something that AdWord is still known for, which have far-reaching consequences and not as AdWords reforms of English law nowadays, partly camera bite due to the input of Robert Bernal, his chancellor, who was behind a lot of the so-called grid statutes are major laws of upwards when the random Edward's father henry the third, I've pretty much been a disaster. And so AdWord needed to reassert royal authority. He appointed new administrators, cleared out the old guard, brought a new people at both national and local level. And that included Robert Bernal as Chancellor from 1274, right the way through to 1292. He also held an inquest throughout England to hear complaints by abuse of power, by royal officials. And that was quite significant, produced some documents known as the Hundred rules, which were de facto census and give us an awful lot of information up bite England during this period in history. The inquest also assessed what rights and lands the crown had lost during the reign of Henry the third. The 100 rules allowed to quote, we're onto proceedings by what warrant? In other words, what right have you to do this? If a defendant could not produce a royal warrant to brave a grant of liberty, then that liberty reverted to the king, was basically AMD retrieving money from certain franchises like I liberties such as the right to sell, the right to sell gold, the right to farm a certain plot of land, for example. This was based on the legal opinion of an influential scholar called Henry to breakdown the Statute of Westminster of 1275, on the Statute of Westminster of 1285, codified English law. And that's a pretty important moment in English law because there's no This law book that local judges could follow and had not been the case before. Edward an octet, the 1278 Statute of Gloucester to challenge peroneal rights. And he sat in general air. So we're a bit like Turing judges to hear quote, Toronto cases. Nobles were pretty alarmed. I made the point that the king's use of the statute walls in itself, a license. A compromise was reached in 1290 day when a Liberty was considered to be legitimate if it had been exercised since the coronation of Richard the Lionheart and 1189. So they're hot to be some precedent for exercising this liberty. Few liberties were actually returned to the king during these proceedings, but the principle was established that liberties came from the crying. The king could tell you what you could and couldn't do. Church lands, debt recovery and paste keeping were also dealt with by new laws, created an AdWords ran. Those were three pretty big shoes that were around during his time. The creation of the grid statutes, though mostly ended when Robert Bernal died and 1290 tape. If you're interested in the development of law and England, Tony Robinson has a really accessible and fascinating series called Crime and Punishment, which is well-worth watching. Let's talk about AdWords, expulsion of the Jews from England, antisemitism and medieval Europe was pretty widespread. So basically Edwards compounds, it costs a lot and I do mean a lot of money. He borrowed money from Italian bankers and he raised and income from customs duties, money landing on so-called lay subsidies. Those were taxes on individuals estates. So imagine that one day you got a bill from the tax man for a quarter of everything. You owned, your house, your car, your horses, if you're mad able, your furniture, just your lands, everything that you own, suddenly you have to pay a proportion of the value of that. You'd be pretty cheesy and probably a bit chronic. And Edward did this with alarming regularity. Edward also raise money from the Jewish community because Jews were actually considered the personal property of the king. They weren't protected by English law at the king could do whatever he wanted when it came to the Jewish community and cleaning, taxing them at-will. By 12 antique, they had been exploited, so Bobby, but there was just no more money to be hard for them. So the reason that the Jewish community was quite wealthy, it was the Jews were allowed to charge loans with interest, and that was actually forbidden to Christians. A lot of people owed the money, which caused resentment towards them. In 1275, AdWord issued the statute of the gyri that bond loans with interest and insisted the Jewish people find alternative professions. And 1279 heads of averages high sold were arrested and 300 of them were actually executed. In 12 anti, he ordered all Jews to attend sermons by Dominican friars with the aim of converting them, which didn't work. In 1290, the Edict of expulsion expelled all Jews from England. The crime then appropriate of Jewish property and lands. So at meds, a lot of money for Edward doing this, and he was then able to negotiate a substantial lay subsidy from Parliament. Edward was not the only European monarch to behave in this way towards the Jews. Philip the Second of France had expelled all the Jews. And 1182, John, the first logic of Bretton a, expel them. In 1239, Louis the Ninth, the fronts expelled them from the Royal demand before going on crusade. For the first time. There was a precedent for this kind of action within Europe. In England, the expulsion was actually not reversed until the time of Oliver Cromwell in the 16 fifties. We've mentioned that the concept of parliament developed under Edwards row. Edward actually held parliaments regulate throughout his reign because at that period in history it was the king who called a parliament are gathering to speak. A significant change occurred. And 1295 though, when an addition to ecclesiastical and secular lords, two nights and nights were commoners from each county were sent as representatives. Not commoners had been representatives in parliament before, but only basically two, shore up the decisions of the Lord's NIH. They had full authority to represent their communities. Nowadays, of course, they British Parliament is divided into the highest of Laura's Lords and the House of Commons. And laws are actually met. And the House of Commons than debated by the lords, were beginning to say the very early moments of the development of that system. The king, at this point in history, not though nine hard authority from the whole population to collect lay subsidies because it wasn't a democracy, it was a byte money. This format has been labeled by historians as the so-called model parliament. So as you've probably worked out already, Edward liked to tax the living daylights out of his subjects. Wars and the 12 nineties on the subsequent lay subsidies put an enormous strand on AdWords subjects. He actually levied three lay subsidies and 1294 on four, from 1290 to eight to 1297. And he introduced unpopular JJ switch adversely impacted the whole population, such as a JD on N204 Edwards amount of half of all clerical revenues and that's so hot and so that, that time Robert Wilson, who was Archbishop of Canterbury to be an athlete. And nobody was really in post and Eng 21. Edward II Part 1 : The next plant arch that King we're going to talk about is the son of Edward, the first. Edward the second, of course made very famous by the play by Christopher Marlowe, which depicts him as more of a lover than a fighter and not show some renaissance interests there. And what's interesting about Edward the second is high. He's viewed in different periods of history. Tell us something about that period of history and the modern age. She can be seen as a bit of a gay martyr, possibly because of a rumor that has circulated for centuries. Other never substantiated. I must add that he was killed by a hot poker to his rectum as a punishment for his gay relationships, especially his relationships with peers Galveston, and with Hugh dispenser the younger, his favorites. In his own lifetime, his contemporaries regarded him as a bit of a failure because he lost the battle of Baunach barn and was defeated by the Scots then as a tyrant and his later ran. So let's hear a little bit more about Edward the second. And you can make up your own mind what you think led to the downfall of the first English came to be removed from the throne, and then of course, probably murdered. Edward the second was born in Carnarvon castle on the 25th of April at 1284, and he lived until the 21st of September, 1327. In his early life, he was known as AdWord of Carnarvon. The castle actually might've been purposely chosen as his birthplace because it was important to the newly conquered Welsh. And it was the administrative center of North Wales, as we've heard before Edward, whilst the first principle whales, contemporary profits proclaimed the Edward would be the new King Arthur. And of course, we know that King Arthur was associated with whales and that he would bring glory to England. He was the fourth son of Edward, the first. But by the time he was born, his brothers John and Henry had already died, and his brother Alfonso died in August at 1284. So that was only a few months after Edward's birth. When he was born, it seemed quite likely that he could possibly one day became he was a healthy child, but there were fears that he could die and leave the king with a male heir. And as we've seen before, a succession crisis calls rail and stability in a country. So they are a bit of a disaster. Edward hot wet nurses on barely knew his mother during his early childhood as she was often gasket with his father. So he was basically raised by other people, which wasn't an uncommon practice. And the medieval world amongst the nobility. Baby Albert had an official, fully staffed households which was managed by a gentleman called Giles of UDN art. And in 1293, William of Libre took over the running of Edwards households at which NIH had a bigger budget. So he's only very small, but he's already are big figure. Guy Fair became Edwards Manchester and that was the person who was responsible for teaching him king lay things like riding and military skills. And a lot of his education was carried out by the Dominican Order and they would actually be supporters of his right the way through to the end. Eleanor of caste stable. His mother wanted all her children to be well-educated and fair, was respected intellectual, but we don't know how good a scholar Edward was. He may have been brilliantly, may have been a total dance suite or just don't have records for us. Mostly spoke IN glow Norman French, but he could also speak English and possibly had a knowledge of Latin as well. Today's royal family, he loved horses and dogs, especially gray huts apparently was interested in horse breeding. Much like the current queen. He had a sort of tick, that sense of humor, which you find that a lot today. And he wrote joking letters by Sandra, his friends, horses who would throw their riders or dogs who were too lazy to hunt. He didn't particularly like popular sports at the time, like hunting and Falcon Rey. He didn't GI, which may have been because it was thought a bad idea to let them enjoy, because we didn't want the last surviving air of Edward the first to die on a joist basically. Or perhaps he liked aptitude for it, or it wasn't particularly interested in it. He's described as having being tall and muscular and he was considered good looking and he was a good public speaker. So somebody who could potentially draw attention. He was very generous to his household staff. And unusually, very unusually for a king in this period, he associated with laborers and lower-class workers. And they actually came in for criticism from his contemporaries for doing so. When he was very small, he was betrothed to Margaret of Norway, who was the heir to the throne in Scotland, and that was in 1298. Other Margaret, as we heard earlier. Very sappy died at the age of seven, so that marriage never came a bite. His mother also died that year, adds his father, Ed, with the first file and just period of really deep mourning AdWords inherited from his mother. So he has some European lands other the former empire of Henry the second is really no more by this period in history, his grandmother Ellen or prevents, died shortly after his mother died. So for once a young he had a pretty tough year. War with France broke ICT and 1294. And because of that, I proposed marriage between AdWord add a daughter of gay. The kind of Flanders was blocked by Philip the fourth of France, who didn't want to grow the power of the highest of plant Agilent. Talking about the plant originates in continental Europe. Edward the first lands in gasket a happy confiscated, as we heard. He went on campaign against Philip the fourth, leaving Edward as reagent and England and 129798. So he's quite young, but he's in-charge on his return. And 1298, Edward the first agreed to marry Philip, the fourth sister Margaret, prince Edward, as He wills at the time when Mary Phillips daughter Isabella, who was that emerged only two, but obviously there would actually be married. It was all pretty much a legal thing. The outcome of that would be that the Duchy of gas grenade would be inherited by a descendant of both AdWord and Philip. Nobody would lose face and that squabble would be over, or that was the plan anyway. It so happened to the Edward got on well, with his stepmother. He had two half-brothers from that second marriage of his father's, Thomas of brothers on Edmond of Woodstock, both of whom would one day turn against him. He also had a half sister, but she sadly died aged only five. As King Edward financially supported his half-brothers on, he gave them titles. Whenever the first return to Scotland and 1300 he made his son the commander of the rear guard at the stage of care, love Rock Castle and spring 1301. Edward was made at the Prince of Wales on the URL of Chester and given louds and North Wales, this was intended to make edward financially independent. So it's a bit like a signal that he's coming of Ed. And he can be trusted with lands and responsibility. After receiving homage from his subjects and Wales, the younger Edward lab 300 soldiers to Scotland, which is actually a pretty small force, uncaptured turn break hassle and Asher, he's been tested ICT as a military leader, Prince Edward, Brennan and Castle and 1303 and he used his own search engine which showed, and I should have in 130 for he that unsuccessful paste negotiations with the Scottish leaders then joined his father at the stage of Stirling Castle. And sterling castle was a very, very key strategic cancels with that was important. In 1305, Prince Edward hard our RI with the treasurer that ship Walter LinkedIn, presumably a bike. The amount of money that he received from the crime. His father actually sided with LinkedIn, abolished Edward and his friends from court without financial support. Family and friends interceded in this dispute. Negotiation eventually took place. In 1306, Robert the Bruce declared himself King of Scotland. Edward, the first part is sudden charge at the English expedition to Scotland that resulted on Prince Edward was named Jake of Aquitaine. With many other young man, was knighted at Westminster Abbey and the 1306 face-to-face swans in which Edward the press has decided to night many Esquire. The whole affair was very sumptuous and suggested that on Arthurian faced, where the new note swore an oath to the fate Robert to the brace, Edward, the first treatment of braces, supporters and families was brutal as we heard before, but we don't know what rule prints, AdWords, plate, those undertakings. We're not seeing a streak of cruelty right? From his youth. Prince Edward return to England and September 13th, O6 to finalize a debt for his wedding to Isabella, the son of one of Edward, the first household nights pairs, Galveston, who also became infamous through the Christopher Marlowe play, joined Prince Edward Tyson's and 1300, possibly at AdWord, the first behest, Galveston became a square. And what he was one of the squares, knighthood at the face or swans. Galveston and AdWords became very close. Mostly their relationship is depicted as having Beta gay relationship and modern terms, and that was definitely suggested by Marlow. We don't have any actual description of what the relationship was. They may have been very, very close France, they may have made what was called sworn brothers, where they promise to be a support to each other, a lifelong support. I think it is most likely personally, but it was a gay relationship. For uncertain reasons. Edward, the excellent Galveston to gasket 81307. Goddesses fathers have labs near gas. As it happens. One story suggests that Edward asked his father to give Galveston the county of Pontiac. And Edward the first responded by tearing Prince Edward's hair, right? So angry while say so. A lot of favoritism and nepotism is being shown to Galveston here. But to give them Pontiac, which was a royal. What advertised inherited from his mother walls and the view of Edward, the first byte ridges. Court records show that Galveston was temporarily exile with a generous stipend there. So presumably the exile was intended to punish the prints rather than to punished Galveston himself. Edward, the second sexuality, of course, is still a topic of the bits. And it's just worth noting that sexuality and our modern edge is very much a part of your identity. Identity and the medieval period came from status. And Edward was the heir apparent, he would be the king, certain things where expected of him and that psi, he would've been viewed by his contemporaries, of course, being accused of sodomy and the medieval world was something that could really get you into trouble. It was frowned on by the church and by society. So this is possibly why we don't have many records that give us details of the relationship between AdWords and Galveston. Of course, both AdWords and Galveston had children by their wives, would also have an illegitimate son. And it's thought to have had an affair with his own nice Eleanor declare, who was the daughter of Edward, sister Joan of Arc CRA. An anonymous chronicler of the 1890s described Edward's feelings for Galveston like this. However, he felt such love that he entered into a covenant of constant state and bind himself with him, build all other mortals with a bond of indissoluble love firmly drawn up and fastened with a not light hand fasting. We talked about marriage. We talked about tying. The knot was a kind of ceremony that would have been performed in medieval times where somebody got married. The couples hands would've been tied together. So this is as almost like a wedding vibe being described here. In 1334. Atom or Latin, who was Bishop of hair effort was accused of calling Edward the second Asada might, and it was not a small thing to say that the king, but he replied that he had called hue dispensed or the Younger, who was then Edward's favorite, a satellite or not. The king himself tried to get out of that one. The MO Kronecker, which was written and the Cistercian Abbey of MOE standard but AdWord indulge too much in the vice of sodomy. So his sexuality was remarked upon by his contemporaries. Are those spoken about more often after his death? Or Latin statements now being politically motivated and ledger accounts rely on them. So it's really this remark by orbital that's giving us rumors that have circulated for centuries. The end of AdWords Rand had left him very unpopular and so he was open to this kind of attack, as we'll see later. Some modern historians believe that AdWords on Galveston edited to the medieval state of adoptive brotherhoods, which I mentioned earlier on are sworn brotherhood. There was a pledge that held them together. And one Chronicle specifically states that Edward had, had taken Galveston on us, an adopted brother. So that's another way but their relationship was viewed. So after the first died on the way to fight in Scotland on the 7th of July, 13th, 07 add with the second was proclaimed king on the 20th of July. He continued to Scotland and received homage from his supporters. They're at dumb phrase on the 4th of August. He then abandon the campaign and Scotland and wet site and swiftly recalled Galveston from exile, gave him the title of arrow of Cornwall and arranged his marriage to the wealthy Margaret declare so really sets him up and English society. Edward removed Bishop Langton from his post as treasurer and had him arrested. So gets his own back there. Edward actually didn't bury his father for months. He wasn't buried until October 1307. He erected only a simple marble term would like the customer a effigy that kings received that could have been to do with lack of money and it could have been today with personal l failing. We don't really know. Edward then married Isabella and 1308, and he left Galveston and charge when he went to France for the sara. But I got some noses out of joint at home because this arrangement gave Galveston unprecedented pars. It was also given the king's grit sale meeting that he could sign documents and the name of the king, and this was unheard of. Edward hooked that his marriage for bringing him money and secure the disputed land and gaskets. It's still happened, but felt the fourth and Edward didn't particularly like each other, and Philip did not give Isabella the kind of Dari that Edward would have hoped for. There were also tensions over governance of AdWords lands and France. Advert gave homage to fill up as Duke of Aquitaine, an AdWord. And Isabella came to England and February at 1308 for their return home, AdWords had ordered the refurbishment of Westminster palace and arranged a huge wedding faced on coronation, which was to be a spectacular event. The wedding feast would fit your marble tables, which was very swaggy at the time, 40 ovens and a funding of wine and pimento. And pimento was a medieval spiced drinks. So there's going to be plenty of drinking going on up the correlation, Edward VI, to uphold the rightful laws and customs which the community of the realm shall have chosen. This may have been an attempt to curb the power of the king or the king's attempt to carry the favor of the barons. We don't particularly know, but he's giving the impression that he's not going to be completely absolute. Such large crowd surged into the palace that a wall was actually knocked on an AdWord flat out the backdoor. Isabella was actually only 12 at this time. And that was very young, even by medieval standards, a certain amount of a fence was caused because pairs Galveston was given a very elaborate outfit and a rule and the ceremony and AdWords spend more time with Galveston than with his wife during the face. It's quite like that because Isabella was so young that AdWord had other sexual relationships during the early years of their marriage. His illegitimate son, Adam Fitzroy as an RA, is the king. So atoms some of the king is thought to have been born and 1307, and that was before the marriage though. Edward and Isabella, some the future Edward the third was born in 1312 when Isabella was 17, and they went all to have three more children. John, who was born in 1316, Eleanor who was born in 1318, and Joan who was born in 1321. After galveston has returned from exile, the parents were dismayed at the extent of his influence on par. Galveston was accused of stealing royal money and Isabella's wedding present, such was his unpopularity. Galveston has played a key role at the coronation, as we've heard. That had turn some heads and drawn some notice of the Parliament of February 1308. The barons refused to discuss reforms until the issue of Galveston was resolved. Because not only were the English parents are founded, but French dignitaries were offended by Isabella treatment at the face. Henry to, let's say who was the third arch of Lincoln, prevented an outbreak of violence at this time by convincing the barons to back down. Basically, at the next Parliament in April, the barons to bond to the Galveston be exiled, again, supported by Isabella, the French royal highest. With these powerful forces ridged against him. Edward was finally forced to sound Galveston to Aquitaine under the threat of excommunication, should he return? And that was issued by the Archbishop of Canterbury. Like excommunication was very serious and medieval times that basically meant not being a member of society. So this was something that really was hanging over Galveston. So although AdWords, initially a grade to this plant centered Aquitaine, he actually on the ad, met Galveston Lord left-handed of Ireland, and sent him to Dublin. So he was a bit closer by the king and the barons met and 1300 wit to discuss reforms. But at this time, Edward was in secret talks with pope climb at the fifth and Philip the fourth of France to negotiate Galveston returned to England in exchange for suppressing the Knights Templar in England. Because both Philip, the fourth odd the Pope, had base with the Knights Templar. Also, he was proposing that he would release Bishop linkedin, who was still in prison in England. Egn 1309, a new parliament or grade that AdWords could raise additional taxes, FAR greater reforms. It refused to readmit Galveston to England though. So Galveston romance the sticking point. Edward assured the Pope that the conflict arrived at Galveston was ended though, and he agreed to lift the threat of excommunication. It meant that the door was open for Galveston to return an accurate map. Galveston, upon his return to England and Jane 1309, the July Parliament of that year, AdWord made concessions to Galveston opponents, including placing limits on the parts of the royal Stewart and the Marshal of the royal household. Regulation on the very unpopular part of science, which was the requisitioning of goods for the royal household. Basically the king could say, I won't those goods at this price ad could also take people's horses if he needed them. Obviously, people worked very happy with that. Another thing he agreed to was the abandonment of recent customs legislation. And in return, Edward was permitted to raise taxes for a new war and Scotland. And these arrangements are paired to pay at the time, a successful compromise. Ever when Galveston came back to court, he chased people off. Basically, the barons considered him arrogant and he had these kind of nasty nicknames for the nobility. For example, he fair to the very powerful work as the dog of work. And I think it sort of testimony to his relationship with AdWords that he felt he could insult very powerful people. But because he had this protection from the king, basically the very powerful Earl of Lancaster, who was the king's chasm, and other opponents of Galveston, refused to attend parliament and 1310 because Galveston would be there. The RL of Lancaster features and Edwards story a lot. He was the son of admins crutch back. Who was Edward the first brother, of course, Edward Wolff, and political trouble at this point, he also had a very large debt to his Italian bikers. If there's a lot of criticism at home over his use of violence to gather supplies for the war in Scotland, which was seen as well basically as an abuse of that particular par. His attempts to raise an army collapsed and the new taxes for the worst stopped being collected after suspension by the Arles. The Parliament of February 1310. Edward was arched. Get rid of Galveston again. Get rid of them as a counselor basically, so that he wouldn't have as much par, and he was still alive. 21 elected Barack, known as dinners to reform his government on household adword a grade because basically he was backed into a corner. They order winners made preparations for the reforms. And Edward and Galveston went to Scotland with 4,700 MAD, which wasn't a particularly large force, but it was enough to rattle subscribers. Robert the brace would not give battle bow. And over the winter of 1311, AdWords supplies on money ran out and so he was forced to return to England. 22. Edward II Part 2 : In October, advert was forced to accept the ordinances of 1311. And those limited the ability of the king to go to war or grant loud with the approval of parliament, abolishing parts of the system. Although prevalence was not completely abolished until 166 days, so it lasted for another few centuries. And introducing regulation of adherence to the ordinances. The ordinances also exiled Galveston and insisting that he should not live in any of AdWords lands a must be stripped of his titles. So he's basically to be turned into a nobody. And the realm of England. He had it to Northern France or to Flanders. We're not too sure which tangents between edward on the barons obviously rose after that, especially with the wealthiest snowball, the art of Lancaster, who was also the Earl of Leicester, Derby, Salisbury, and Lincoln hats. He was incredibly wealthy. Edward was reunited with Galveston, however, York and January 13, Twelve, after revoking the ordinances are very, very risky political move. The Archbishop of Canterbury excommunicated Galveston, threatened before on the balance plant to capture him. Isabella, who first Galveston was first exile, teed up for the first time, was probably pretty happy that that had happened. She speaks to her husband's sort of soothing Lee about Galveston and seems to support his retarding because she has to live with AdWords on that tie to get on his good side. Actually, dad Jones and his book, The plant agitates the kings who made England quite interesting insights into the relationship between Isabella and adword a rod this time, edward Galveston and Isabella habit to New Castle after he arrived, pursued by Lancaster and his function and the royal part, I abandoned their belongings, sale to Scarborough, where Galveston stayed while Edward and Isabella went to York. Pembroke and Sarai besieged Galveston, who surrendered on the condition he would not be harmed. He had in his possession gold, silver, and gems, which he was later accused of stealing from the royal treasury. Pembroke broke his journey at the village of Darlington and the Redlands so that he could visit his wife and he left Galveston. They're under guard at this point, the powerful Earl of Warwick, him Galveston hub called the dog of work, seized Galveston and took him to work castle, where Lancaster and his faction where waiting. They put Galveston under trial and find him guilty of treason and breaking the ordinances. The next day he was executed at black low hill online casters orders. And he wasn't buried until 1315, where his funeral was held at Kings Langley primary, which was beside the king's palace at Kings Langley. Edward viewed Galveston staff as murder on vide revenge whilst providing for Galveston family. They are also Pembroke and Sarai supported AdWords and barest that work had been able to take Galveston from their charge. They are loved. Pembroke averted civil war, which could have blown up by negotiating a peace treaty under which the bonds would be pardoned for Galveston staff and return for companion and Scotland. Lancaster and work dead not give the treaty approval though at first, negotiations continued through light 1313. That's interesting, and that they don't have the fear of the king that might have existed in earlier generations. Basically, the Arlo Pembroke had been negotiating over gasket a with France as well. And so Edward and Isabella went to meet Philip the fourth, who was Isabella is father, Paris and Jane 1313 add, this visit was a huge success. It was also a huge state affair. Edward and Philip Knight at 200 men and not to dab the Perry. There were banquets along the San. There was a big public show, and there are also promises for both kings and queens to go on crusade, although that didn't happen. Phillips terms for settling the dispute over gas, they were a fairly soft as well. They only Bob thing that happened on this trip was that a fire broke out and Edwards quarters. Unfortunately, this successful trip to front strengthened AdWords position and England like Astra and work a grade two similar pace terms as hot Bain suggested and 13, Twelve, and October 1315. In other words, they would be pardoned if they would engage in a new campaign. And Scotland, parliaments are great. Edward could raise taxes. The Pope, Philip the fourth on the Italian bunkers give AdWords large lobes. His financial situation. As an awful lot better than it had been for years. And as government is a lot better funded than it had been for years. But more trouble was a bite to kick off. And Scotland, by 1314, Robert the Bruce had recaptured nearly every castle that Edward held in Scotland and was reading Northern England. Edward Lancaster and the barons raised an army of between fifteen thousand and twenty thousand MAD, which was a huge force. Brace specifically the important English stronghold of Stirling Castle and its commander threatened to surrender of AdWords does not arrive by the 24th of June. So Edward, heartless and lead ME and rushed to Sterling from Barrack upon tweet. Braces force only numbered 5.5 thousand to 6.5 thousand men. And their aim was to stop Edward reaching sterling castle. On the 23rd of Jane. A battle took place on the high ground off Baunach burn, a burn bang, small river. The English needed to cross a panic burn to get to Starling castle basically, and it was surrounded by marshlands, uneasy terrane. During this battle, Robert the Bruce killed sir Henry to Bowen. There's a major English beggar died right at the start. The next day. Edward continued to advance and met with the greater part of the Scottish force which emerged from the woods of new park. The English were completely taken by surprise. And he had basically had his forces and marching for mission, not battle formation. They archers who would have been capable of taking the anime where the rare rather than on the front where they just couldn't fake effective. Another problem was that Edwards cavalry could not maneuver and the Crump to RAM. When they were taco fibrosis spare meant like basically didn't stop the chance. The English armies leaders lost control of the situation. Adword, try to stay and fight, but the olive Pembroke pretty much realized the battle was lost and dragged him away from the battlefield with the Scots and pursuit. Edward then made a bargain with God, basically thinking that he might die. And so he borrowed to find a Carmelite monastery and Oxford should he survive the English losses and the Battle of bonnet barn where a prodigious and it was a crushing on humiliating defeat. Edward headed to York and sterling castle eventually fell. After the sort of shameful defeat of the Battle of Baunach, Barney came the Great Famine of 1315 to 17, which was sweeping Europe at the time. And this was something else that diminished Edwards popularity and confidence in him. The parts of the Arles of Lancaster are Warwick grew at the same time and they insisted on the rate implementation of the ordinances of 1311. Lancaster is refusal to meet Edward and parliament for two years pretty much halted the business of government. So thanks are at a stalemate. The airlift Pembroke, once more security settlements. The Treaty of lake, which was signed in August 1318, Lancaster out his faction, were pardoned for the death of Galveston. And a royal console was set up that avoided a civil war basically. But more trouble was to come to eventually ran and let 1314 it by a very cold winter, lead to poor crops and killed sheep and cattle, leading to the grid famine, which we've just mentioned. Bad weather actually continued until 1321 with, with a series of bad harvests. Revenue from woeful on the price of food spiraled despite Edwards attempts to put caps on food prices, agriculture for the release of stored food. And he tried to encourage internal training whilst trying to import grant, but this strategy was unsuccessful. During this time Edward continue to requisition. Third, using the power of PR balance for the royal court, I'm not well, it's incredibly unpopular, whilst other people were starving. Arrive this time, Robert the Bruce, rid of Northern England, attacking Carlyle and Barrack. And then he followed up by attacking like usher in Yorkshire, even threatening the patagium, that stronghold of York itself. At which contract campaign and 1319 walls expensive and difficult as he couldn't keep his army supplied with enough food during our thumb. And basically, Robert the Bruce, his brother Edward Bruce, had successfully invaded Ireland and 1315, declaring himself king of Ireland, which was obviously going to put AdWords nose out of joint. He was defeated in 1318 by Adam Butler, who was Edwards irish, just a share. And he actually sent Edward Bruce's Savard had revolts were suppressed in ligature and Bristol and 13th, I didn't good Morgan and 1316, resistance to AdWords row cropping up all over the place. And the famine and Scottish victories were seen as a punishment from God and sort of fat. And two negative public opinion, as shown in a poem written at the time called the evil times of AdWords the second, He's not popular with his starving people opposition group. What's more around AdWords, treatment of his favorites, his lack of legality and his weak leadership. Albert had divided the largest state of the lead artist Gloucester among his favorites, which was part of the problem. His former high salt lights Hue oddly and Roger demarcate those who had helped broker pace. And 1318. And I started to turn against AdWords. Civil war, which had been brewing for awhile. Finally broke item 1321, triggered by hostility between several barons and AdWords, no particular favorites, the dispenser, family, Q2 dispenser, the Altair. I had surfed both Edward the first and Edward the second on to some who the younger married enter the wealthy declare family. He was also appointed as the king's Chamberlain, was given good Morgan and Wales and 1317. So he had a close personal relationship with AdWords and he was being rewarded for it. People in par basically couldn't stand the dispensers. Those included the URL of Lancaster, the art of Hereford, the margin or family who are ugly. And Roger Deborah, who we've just mentioned in early 1321, Lancaster brought together the dispensers, enemies and the March or territory's and Wales. This grape would later become known as the March or lords. Edward on here dispense with the younger went west hoping the airlift Pembroke would negotiate a trace as he had done in the past, but he wouldn't entertain this time. And war broke out. And may the March or lords on the local gentry seized for the sponsors lands. Lancaster gathered balance and clergy and June and find the dispensers guilty of breaking the ordinances. In July, they occupied London, calling for the removal of the dispensers. Edward was especially close to who the younger, as we've mentioned. A chronicler actually sat the AdWords, loved dare lay with all his heart and mind the young hue, fairing that he might be deposed. Edward nonetheless, despite his love for a grade to exile dispensers on pardoned the March or lords. But he also began to plan on his revenge. He recruited his half brothers, sons of the sons of Edward, the first by his second marriage, some of the arrows on some of the senior clergy and prepared for a major conflict with the March or lords average engineered are raising to attack them by sand dying Isabella to the homestead of a guy called Bartholomew battles smear the first foreign bottles mirror, whose wife Margaret attach the Queen's revenue and that allied AdWord to step in and intervene. I gave him a race and to basically start a fight. Lancaster though, refused to help battles merit because he really didn't like him. It was, there was a personal enmity there. Edward regained control of Southeast England. At that point, like to rallied his army and the North of England. And Edward gathered his forces and the Southwest. So something was really brewing at this point. The dispensers returned from exile with a pardon from the Royal console. Edward punished Lancaster supporters and courts constructed especially for the purpose, with judges ordered high to sentence the accused before they've even been tried. And defendants were not alive to speak in their own defense. The accused were called contrarians. Many were executed somewhere, imprisoned or find. Their lands were confiscated and they're surviving families to tend not to have your lands called the scattered. At this point in history, it was almost like a fit worse than death because it made you nobody. If you weren't a land owner, you weren't public figure, you were basically made a 0. So this was actually a very harsh thing to do. Such was the par of the dispensers during all this that at a court that they oversaw, the mighty Earl of Lancaster, Thomas plantar Jeanette himself was executed. The URL of Pembroke this time had lost the trust of the king. He was arrested, but he secured his released by promising all his possessions as collateral against a betrayal of AdWords. So it's basically like an oath of loyalty, where if he doesn't keep it to lose absolutely everything, Edward continue to reward his followers, especially the dispensers, with a stance that he had confiscated from other people and with new titles, didn't do much to increase his popularity. By 1326, Edwards Treasury was overflowing with fines on confiscated property. So he became pretty wealthy off the back of all this happening. The statute of York and 1322 revoked the ordinances and allied AdWords to raise taxes for our campaign and Scotland, the sting of Baunach barn must still have been smarter at that point. This was to be a massive campaign with a force of 23,320 men. Absolutely huge and medieval terms. Effort advanced through low van to Edinburgh, but Robert the Bruce would not meet him and battle. The English army could not receive the plan provisions via say on Ron ICT of supply. And so advert was forced to retreat, pursued by Scottish raiding parties. Isabella was nearly captured at time with a skit by say, what she felt was a total humiliation, as we'll see later. At this time, Edwards illegitimate son, Adam died. Edward wanted to keep fighting the Scots, but support for his campaign was diminishing. The new URL of Carlisle, Andrew Hartley negotiated paste trading with Robert the Bruce. Abbott was to recognize braces, King of Scotland embrace was to stop reading England. Edward was absolutely furious about this, an exile correctly. Although he agreed to a 13 year truce with Scotland, dispenser the younger played a huge role and AdWords government and hot huge pars exercise through a network of family retainers. And the dispensers use their status to acquire more wealth and lands. Some historians believed they used fraud and violence towards this end as well. Edward was pretty much losing the PR war as miracles were reported at the tomb of his cousin Lancaster and at the gallows where Edwards opposition hopping executed. So the sandstone guard err on the side of AdWords animates. It's beginning to be sad. After the seizure of land's law and order started to break down the remaining March and lords attempted to free the prisoners. Edward was holding out Wallingford kasa, a prominent March lord Rodger Mortimer escaped from the Tower of London and went to France. And he's going to be pretty important. And what happens next as we'll see, war with France over gasket a Broca and 1324, and that was known as the War of sounds are due. Charles, the new French king. Isabella's brother-in-law, Charles the fourth of France. He exceeded and 1320 to 1323, he insisted that AdWord give homage for gasket a, and that has officials there should follow orders that have been given in Paris in October, some of AdWords. So just hiring a French sergeant for his attempt to build a new fortified time and a contested area near the border of gaskin. A. Edward basically refused to take responsibility for this act, saying he had nothing to do with that. And that cause tension between himself and his brother-in-law, the King of France. The Arlo Pembroke, was sent to negotiate a trade date, but unfortunately he died on the way. That point Charles and vetted gasket. The French force was larger than the English and they cut off the key setting of Bordeaux. Adword ordered the arrest of all French residents and England, and that included punishing his own wife. He seized Isabel his lands. And since she was French by birth, she was actually detained and she wasn't delight any French company. She wasn't alive. French servants or French France to call. No, I give them that she was French and she spoke French. That was pretty harsh. So chez is a member of one of the most powerful families and Europe, an AdWord is treating her with cruelty. We think up until this point that they had a reasonable marriage, no evidence to suggest otherwise. As we've seen, they had four children together. Their heartbeat, the issue of AdWords favorites, but it's really not worth. The trouble from Isabella begins in November 1324, the arrows and the English church and encouraged Edwards later force of 11 thousand mad Ditech back gasket. But Edwards didn't want to go and send the airlift. Sarai and his stand. In the meantime, he tried to negotiate with Charles. Charles promise to end the war and return the contested lands. If Isabella and her son, Prince Edward's, were sent to France, Edward wasn't so sure about sanding the heir apparent Prince Edward to France, but sent Isabella and March 13th, 25. Now I have mostly on this course not pasture marked on the action of some of the gangs are tried not to, but high, silly. Can you be he's treated this woman with cruelty. He's locked her up, taken away or labs, cut her off from her close friends. Adenylyl, he fakes that she's going to act in his favorite or like in his interests. It was a very risky thing to do. Although Isabella personally intervened with her brother and actually with much difficulty, reached a settlement, Edward was to give homage and person for gasket a Edward and instead give gas going into Prince Edward and Santana home edge because he was a young prince. Less humiliating that the King of England having to do homage to the King of France. The prince went to France in September 13th, 25. So Charles has got what he wanted, both Isabella and Prince Edward, R and France. Edward quite foolishly expected them to return to England, but they didn't. Isabella couldn't stand Q dispenser the younger, notably because he was known for abusing women of high right. Also she had that base that we've mentioned several times. The whole locked up with either labs, not able to see her friends thing, probably still not entirely happy with that. She also bled hue for the embarrassment of her flight from Scottish forces. And 1322, which was mentioned, she found us bang very humiliating. Recent truths terms with Robert the Bruce also disadvantaged, hard, good France, the Beaumont Family. So she had a number of reasons to not come back to England and to be aggrieved. So by February 13th, 26, she started an affair with the exiled Roger Moore tomorrow. They both wanted AdWord on the dispensers removed from PAR. Edward appealed for Charles's intervention and securing the return of Prince Edward, his heir apparent. But no dice obviously wasn't going to do it. His family have been insulted both at the carnation and wedding faced on by his sister. Bang locked up pace, not going to give in to these demands. Edwards opponents gathered around as Abella a more tomorrow and France. The refers that more tomorrow would invade England by proposing a marriage between Prince Edward on Phillipa, who is the daughter of William, the first kind of a halo. Isabella, a Mortimer, secured 132 transport ships on it. Warships they are making ready for an invasion of England at this point, August and September 13th, 26 Edward began perfect defenses and plants along the coast of England. And he sent a reading forced to Norman's a, as a diversionary tactic ad with dead and tough popular support though, or support from the establishment. His regime was very much disliked. And the dispensers where unpopular. Of 2 thousand men who were ordered to muster at Orwell, only 55 showed up. And when Roger Moore tumor Isabella Prince Edward Island at Woodstock Edwards half brother arrived with an advantage force the 24th of September 1326. They pretty much in conjured no resistance. They were joined by antibodies of the dispensers and England, including Thomas brother Ethan Edwards, other half-brother, henry, the third arm of Lancaster, who had inherited the title from his brother Thomas and senior Clark. On the second of October, Edward was forced to leave London with the dispensers when the city basically rose against him. Walter Stapleton, the former treasurer, was killed and suppose cathedral not to be killed and a place of sanctuary and a holy place. And the medieval world was something very, very shocking. So mobs attacked AdWords officials at that point. And the bulbs took the Tower of London and freed prisoners. Ever went to Gloucester and he plan to go from Gloucester to whales and raise and RB more tomorrow. And Isabella followed hot on his heels, continuously building their support myths. So Edward and here the younger try to skip to Ireland to raise an army, but they were driven back by bad weather. Edward wept to carefully castle and tried to raise his remaining forces from their Isabel has followers on the charge at that point took over the administration of England. Surrounded who to Spencer the algae are at barista. He surrendered but was swiftly executed AdWords and he dispensed with the younger flat carefully on the second of the Weber thought were captured on the 16th of November. Edward was taken to mom with castle and then to Lancaster is portraits at Kenilworth. His forces surrendered and March 1327. So the gamma is pretty much up at this point more tomorrow. And Isabella sentence the young dispenser to be dissembled, castrated, and quartered. He was executed on the 24th of November at 1326. So you'll notice the castration, this sort of sexual element of his punishment. And I think that's why the story of the hot poker and AdWord, the second test had some credence for so long. Other high profile members of Edwards administration such as his chancellor Robert Bulldog, and the arrows are also died and the sun rest. Now at this point, there was no precedent for removing a king, atom or Latin. The Bishop of Hereford admit accusations or bite AdWords on his conduct as king that were addressed by parliament and January 1327, Edward refused to attend. Responding to the mob violence in London, Parliament code for prints AdWords to take the throne and replace his father. On the 12th of January, the leading barons and clergy agreed that Edward the second should be replaced by his son. The assembly of barons find AdWord unfit to rule. Basically, a delegation of barns, clergy and lights went to Kenilworth to speak to the king. Until the 20th of January 13th, 27 Lancaster on the bishops of Lincoln and Winchester, met Edwards and private. They urged him to abdicate in favor of a sudden onset that if he refused to do that, the crime would pass away from his family and another conduct would be given the throne. Edward could do nothing but a great, and from then on he became known as AdWords of Carnarvon, as he had been known in his youth. Edward the third was cried at Westminster Abbey on the 1st of February 13th, 27. Edward the second supporters plan to free him. So Mortimer moved him. To Barkley, careful and Gloucestershire, all the 5th of April, 1327. His jailers there were Thomas to Barclay who's the third barren Buckley, John mal Travers. Records vary on whether he was kept in luxury and there are some records that indicate that luxury items were ordered or whether he was cruelly mistreated. We just actually don't know, but plots to free him, circulated from his household lights. And the Dominican Order who had been part of his education when he was young. One group actually made it as far as breaking into the castle on Edward was moved around until the summer of 1327, when he was finally secured bark the castle. On the 23rd of September, Edward the third was told that his father had died in the night. It's most likely that he was murdered. Those suspected of involvement, flags including mild Travers with an update on Sir Thomas guard, I advert the third hi ever had a poor relationship with Mark tomorrow and seized power himself and a coup d'etat melting in council. And 1330 on the end of the row of more tomorrow around Isabella and Edward, the third hot Wartburg, executed on charges of treason, and that included the murder of his father, Edward the second. However, he spared his mother and gave her an alliance. Although she was forced into retirement on ICT of public life and in later life she joined the order of the pyroclastic, so she became an AdWord. The second was buried by the high altar at Gloucester Cathedral, width pump and Sarah but I, on the 20th of December 13th, 27, He was actually buried and his coronation robes, a sign of his kingship. His heart was removed and put in a silver Vasa at NIH buried with Isabella at NuGet church and London. His tome actually became a tourist attraction or mad money for the cathedral. It was seen as a site of pilgrimage. Here was a king and kings were the Lord's anointed, chosen by thought, who have been killed by mere mortals. That was very shocking and the medieval world, the chronic or Jeffrey LA Becker depicted upward as a marketer. And Richard the Second actually tried to have him canonized and 1395. So his massive and popularity during the later part of his Ran does not translate and to occur memory of him. Of course, it's really the play by Christopher Marlowe that has immortalized him. And the modern consciousness AdWords team was actually open to that take 55 on the coffin was well-preserved and it was extensively restored at a cost of a 102,007 to 2008, which shows that even in our generation, people are still very interested. And Edward, the second chroniclers spread the well-known story in the 1830s about Edward having been killed by a red-hot poker and started into his rectum, symbolic punishment for his homosexuality. Some people, however, believe that advertiser skipped on the body that was buried was that of a servant, because by the time the body was buried, it was badly decomposed and probably would've been on, recognizable. Thus grew the legend of Edward the second. 23. Life in Medieval England: Let's find out what day to day life was like in the middle edges, population of Europe grew from 35 to 80 million between a 101347 AD, probably due to improved agricultural techniques or the milder climate. Times grew up around castles which were fortified by walls to guard against red's. Infants had a 50% survival rate beyond the edge of one. There was a system known as Memorial ism in which peasants owed rents to unknowable overlord. The development of times, castles were constructed in the ninth and 10th centuries due to disorder at the time. These were at first both of weird but later stone on time screw up around the castles. Viking invasions and the Anglo-Saxon period had led to villages with protective walls around them. Grip medieval walled cities such as York, were constructed with highs as shops and churches within the city walls. Your custom, most extensive remaining medieval walls in Britain, which he can see pictured here. Children from times where more often sent away to become sevenths than their counterparts in the country times, people most often earn their money as merchants are artisans with professions strictly controlled by gilts, guild members would employ boys as the parenthesis to learn the craft and later become members of the guilt themselves. These are parenthesis became members of their master's highest holds and actually lived with them. We've heard a lot of bite kings and queens and nobles. But what was life like for peasants? Medieval villagers were mostly peasant farmers. They lived in small farms with a host Barnes sheds and animal pens. These are clustered around the center of the village. Villages were surrounded by agricultural fields and pastures. Peasants were assigned land, ten by the lord of the monitor or the Nobel at the local castle. They planted rye, oats pays and barley in which they harvest though to with a side, are sick of very, very hard work. Peasants work together to apply the fields on mic hey, they were also expected to build roads, clear forests, and carry out other tasks assigned by their lord. Their horses had earthen floors on few windows. Livestock might live in the highest width. The family conditions improved towards the end of the medieval period, heisst became larger and some had two rooms or even a second floor. Oil and thought best candles created a strong smell. Furniture included wooden benches, long tables covered on palm trees. Bats often contained lice on biting insects. Peasants it warm porridge is made of weight oats and barley. They also add broths, Jews, vegetables and Brad. They very rarely it mate when they did that was from their own animals saved for the winter. They drank wine and ale, but never walter, because Walter could have been diseased. So imagine what would happen to your liver if all you were drinking was alcohol. Wealthier peasants employed servants. It was common for young people to leave their own homes to act as sevenths and another home. This taught them the skills they would need later in life while they earned a which this was particularly useful for girls whose earnings contributed towards their diaries. The nobility, the titled nobility and night Smith money from the manners on peasants. They were granted land by their king or overlord during the 11th and 12th centuries, these lands known as faiths became hereditary. And the early medieval period, they were divided between the children of an aristocratic or noble family. But from this period, they were most often left to the eldest son. The knights provided military service and return for their lands. Kings and high-ranking noble, such as dukes and URLS control vast swaths of land. Beneath them, lesser nobles had power over smaller tracks of land and answer to those nobles higher up the ladder of the aristocracy. Nights were the lowest rung of the mobility. They can trolls, but did not own land and have to serve other nobles. The daily life of the nobility included playing games, including chess, which reflected the hierarchy of the nobles. Of course, they also hired them played music generally monophonic, meaning music without harmony. Secular songs, possibly accompanied by instruments stung by professional musicians known as minstrels, who were poets as well as singers, instrumentalists. Women, women were expected to be subordinate to their husband, father, or another male kinsmen. Widows had more control over their lives, but faced restrictions under the law. Like Man, peasant women planted food, kept livestock and med tech styles. Rich urban women could be merchants or even moneylenders. Middle-class women worked in the textile and brewing industries. And as N papers on shopkeepers per women sold food and marketplaces or worked as domestic servants, day laborers or laundresses. At home, they cooked, cleaned, grind flour, bread, drinks, butchered animals on spun textiles. Nobel women were responsible for running their households and they manage the states and the absence of their husbands. They were restricted from involvement and government or military affairs though while they were running their states, women could become nuns. And Abbasids were some of the most powerful women in Europe and the early medieval period. Children, 20% of women died in childbirth. Peasant women nurse the rhombus, whereas wealthier women could employ a wet nurse. Children were expected to start help support the family. Age 12, kind of law stated that a girl could marry from the age of 12. But this was very unusual unless the child was an era like Margaret Beaufort who story we'll hear later. Peasant children stayed at home to learn domestic skills. Urban children left home to live with their employer if they were an apprentice or a servant. Noble boys learn military skills and noble girls were taught household management skills. Coming of age for a young person in the Middle Ages was at the point where they left home to enter the service of an employer or a Lord of the church. All classes of society were impacted by the church, which was one of the most powerful institutions and medieval England, the Catholic Church, or more specifically, the papacy, was the supreme par and Europe, people took part in sacraments such as holy communion, baptism, confirmation on marriage, religious festivals shipped the calendar, the beliefs of the church shipped the key cultural attitudes of society. It had a sophisticated system of governance, law, and the economy. The parish church was the basic unit of the church, which provided sacraments and was attended by the population on Sundays and religious festivals. Parishes joined together into diocese, which were governed by a bishop and archbishops were the ruling class of the Church ruling over the bishops. Monasteries were made up of man on combats of women who took vows of obedience, poverty, and chastity and became monks and nuns. The most popular order was the Benedictine Order, whose daily lives consisted of manual labor, prayer, and study. The scriptoria within monasteries were where the monks wrote on transcribed works of literature, copies of the Bible and other documents, which was physically very hard work, scratching the NX and to velum or chi hide pages. The remaining that evil tax we have today mostly come from monasteries. Monastery sometimes round grammar skills for gifted children, mostly boy. Pilgrimages to holy places were popular in the Middle Ages, such as the shrine of St. Thomas Beckett and Canterbury, which pictures and Chaucer's famous Canterbury Tales. Rome on the Holy Land were more ambitious pilgrimage destinations. The sale of relics or religious artifacts was a long-lasting Maddie evil scam. Monasteries and convents provided medical care and nursing and often had physics gardens where her herbs and plants used for medicine where grown. There were varying degrees of strictness and religious orders. Some weren't even allowed to speak during the day somewhere a lot more lenient. 24. The Wars of the Roses: Now we're going to talk about a fascinating period and English history, the Wars of the Roses. There's been quite a lot of interest and the Wars of the Roses of recent years because of the novels by Philippa Gregory, such as the white queen on the Red Queen. Because of Game of Thrones switch George RR. Martin claims to have based on the Wars of the Roses night. In their own day, they weren't called the Wars of the Roses. There were noticed the civil wars. There are also sometimes referred to as the cousins wars because basically this is n fighting between two cadet branches of the highest upon ontogeny it, the house of Lancaster, represented by the red rose and the House of York represented by the white rows. These wars lasted and the region of 30 years, they cause devastation and they came to an end with the rise of the tutors. At the end of the Wars of the Roses, we actually have the end of the ontogenetic devastate and the end of the medieval period. And after this, we're into the English Renaissance. So I hope that you're interested to hear high these wars came about and what they're long-lasting consequences where there were key players on each team, if you'd like. In the Wars of the Roses, these are the key players for the highest of Lancaster. Henry the sixth who was king at the time of the outbreak of the Wars of the Roses. He was plagued by mental ill-health. He was also a sort of quiet, peaceable character, which is something we might respect to the modern age, but it wasn't what was expected of a medieval king. I'm so his left a vacuum. The power behind the throne was his wife, Queen Margaret of Anju. She was fighting for her own survival on, for the survival of her family. And she was a military later, very unusual for a medieval English Kwame. She didn't want to be meds protector of the realm whenever it henry had a nervous breakdown. But she was, I stood in that position by Richard of York. A very different kind of powerful female figure, Margaret Beaufort, the mother of Henry Tudor, was a med ranking Lancastrian, Nobel women who from completely behind the scenes managed to direct the course of English history. Then of course, her son, Henry Tudor, who became Henry the seventh, the eventual victor of the Wars of the Roses. Now let's look at the key players for the highest of York. Richard Duke of York, if you remember that little acrostic Richard of York give battle and then red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. That's hiring. I remember the colors of the rainbow. While it was Richard Duke of York. That little rhyme refers to. He was a very powerful GIC with a claim to the throne and was able to challenge Henry the sink. But he did not live to become king. His son, Edward the fourth, eventually took the throne. I was one of the last kings of the high supplant alginate. He was succeeded by his son, Edward the Fifth, who ruled for only 78 days before being declared and legitimate by Richard the third, of course, who was at Duke of Gloucester at the time. Edward the fourth married this lady Elizabeth would Ville. She was a fairly low ranking Lancastrian widow. And this was not the political match that would've been expected. Other medieval king of England, Elizabeth would vote, would eventually team up with Margaret Beaufort High on earth. Is that possible? You may be asking, well, we're going to find that a little bit later than there was this guy, the king maker, Richard novel, the 16th of work. He had an ability to put people on the throne. He chose, although he came a cropper at the end, as we're going to find out that of course, one of the most infamous kings in English history, Richard the Third. His remains were recently discovered in, so we're questioning some of the things that we previously thought a bite him, but he is still the most likely suspect in the murder of the princes in the tar, because he had the most again, and he's kind of thought of as one of English histories. Bad guys. Let's talk a little bit about overview of the Wars of the Roses are the cousins wars. These were civil wars fought over the throne of England from the 22nd of May, 1455 to the 16th of June 14, 87th. For just over 32 years, they caused a huge amount of instability in England. The wars were between the two cadet branches of the ontogeny. But we've just looked up the York and the highest of Lancaster. And sadly, the male heirs of both houses were pretty much wiped ight by the Wars of the Roses, leading to the rise of the highest of tutor. And the tutor derived from the Lancastrian branch. The wars had their roots and the Hundred Years War, which calls socioeconomic issues, I'm not weaken the status of the monarchy. There was also the rise of powerful jigs, most notably Richard Duke of York and the wake leadership of Henry the SEC, who suffered from mental ill-health. Hence, the Duke of York asserted the York has claim to the throne. Richard of your captured Henry the sixth and the first spot, listen to albums and 1455. And that was the first major battle of the Wars of the Roses. Parliament appointed Richard as Lord protector. Four years later at fighting broke out, the GAN, and the York is again captured. Henry, under the leadership of Warwick, the king Becker, the 16th art of work. Richard of York was killed in the battle of Wakefield's and 1416, and his son AdWords inherited his claim. The Lancastrian is freed. Henry at the second bottlenose dolphins on the 17th of February, 1461. Although the Yorkers eventually destroyed the Lancastrian RMA advert, the fourth was crammed and Jane 1461 or the other walls resistance to his room, but that was put down in 1464. There was a period of peace in 1469, work a poster size to the Lancastrian. There were several reasons for this. He disagreed with AdWords, foreign policy, and his marriage to Elizabeth would vote, which left work a bit embarrassed because he'd been trying to negotiate a marriage between AdWords on a member of the French royal family. Edward was deposed on Henry, the SEC was reinstated. Henry was defeated and battle. His 17-year-old air AdWord of Westminster was killed. Killing the air to the highest of Lancaster. Henry who was imprisoned again on most of the Austrians were killed or exiled. Average regaining the throne on Henry died, possibly, most likely on AdWords orders, advertised self die 12 years later in 1483. If you look at these two pictures to the left, we have Henry the sixth. To the right, we have AdWord the fourth. And I think he can really tell from these pictures that they were related. You can see why this walls are cousins war, there's definitely that familial similarity there. The son of Edward the fourth AdWord the fifth, became King Edward the fifth and ruled for only 78 days, as we mentioned before. He was then deposed by his uncle, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, who declare to legitimate and became Richard the Third one of England's most infamous Kang's advert, the fifth was held in the Tower of London, while his mother clams sanctuary in Westminster Abbey with the rest of her children and other. Richard managed to obtain custody of AdWord the force younger son, Richard Duke of York, also known as Richard of shrews break because he was born in Sri spray. Edward the fifth on Richard of York are known as the princes and the tar, and they feature in one of the biggest mysteries of English history. What happened to the princess and the tar? Because sometime in the summer of 1483, they just completely vanished from site and were never seen again, presumably murdered. The prime suspect is of course, Richard the third, but there are other potential killers, possibly the Jacob Buckingham, Henry Tudor, a Margaret Beaufort have also been mentioned as possible killers of the princess and the tar. But that's possibly because of popular novels historically, it seems very unlikely because Henry Tudor was in France at the time that the boys are most likely to have died. Margaret Stafford, as she was at that point because she had remarried, wouldn't really have had access to the boys and the tar. The disappearance of the boys though horrified society. It was the death of holy innocence as it would have been thought of and medieval times. And this led to an uprising in October 1483, known as Buckingham's revolt. And many prominent your costs at that point joined the Lancastrian cause. Horrified where they buy the disappearance and most likely death of these young boys. In the midst of this unrest, Henry Tudor, who had a tenuous hold on the Lancastrian claim to the throne, returned from exile. He was the son of Edmund cheater, who was the first Earl of Richmond, who happened debate Henry the second half brother, because Henry, the same mother, Katherine and Valois, had married Owen cheddar after Henry the fifth died, who was admins father. He was encouraged and supported in this by his remarkably determined mother, margaret Stafford, as she wills by this point, she had been born Margaret Beaufort, and she had married adventure router. And she's married to a prominent York has to, because she was a great strategist, as we'll see later. Henry brought with him English, French, I'm Breton traits, but he was young and inexperienced on most people thought basically that Richard the Third would walk with us bottle because he was a seasoned military later. But famously, Henry Tudor codes ruptured at the Battle of Bosworth Field and 1483 became Henry the seventh. He married Elizabeth of York, who was the daughter of Elizabeth would vote. And Edward the fourth. So the highest of York and Lancaster where United I may get the tutor rows. However, Henry the seventh ran well as Philip pretenders claiming to be one of the princes in the tar, that's a good argument against his having TO bump in her. He couldn't produce a body and say that they were dead. There were people such as Lambert seminal who claim to be Edward the fifth or Parkin war back who claim to be Richard Duke of York, we're back was actually executed and rebellion was avoided. Trader ran strength of the par and press stage of the English monarchy, most notably under Henry the Eighth and Elizabeth the First, the medieval period and at the English Renaissance began. What really caused the Wars of the Roses. And just in case you're interested, the term the Wars of the Roses was coined by Sir Walter Scott, the Victorian novelist. It's quite a romantic term for a very bloody conflict. Basically. Primarily the Wars of the Roses were caused by a succession crisis, we've mentioned before, high succession crisis, late to complete instability and the medieval world. There were also socioeconomic problems after the Hundred Years War on that contributed to the situation. Also powerful Duchess have been created by AdWord the third. And these are light nobles to challenge the monarch and a way that hadn't happened previously in history. And that's why Richard of York was able to have so much par, basically, the unstable Ran of Henry the sixth was also a big factor. It all really goes back to Edward the third, the son of the ill-fated Edward the second, whom we've talked about previously. And Edward the third rules from 1327 to 1375, sons who survived into adulthood. He had edward of Woodstock, known to history as the Black Prince, line of Antwerp, John of Gaunt, Edmonds of Langley, and Thomas of Woodstock. Nor there basically named for the places where they were born, such as Antwerp was the birthplace of Lidl of Antwerp. But Edward the third, give his five sons very powerful victims. Duchess, as they're more properly called. He gave AdWord deduction of Cornwell. He didn't like the Duchy of Clarence. John, he gave the Duchy of Lancaster other actually John acquired the Duchy of Lancaster by marrying Blanche of Lancaster. Other had once belonged to his father, to Edmund. He gave the Duchy of York to Thomas, he gave the Duchess of Gloucester. So the latter to receive their titles during the random of Richard the Second, who was the son of the Black Prince, who was dead. By that time. Victims have not been gifted by the monarch until Edward the Black Prince was given the Duchy of Cornwall and 1337, it wasn't something that happened. And they give, this, gave individuals with a claim to the throne an independent income on the ability to raise an army. Basically that created a new class of Nobel, much, much more powerful than nobles who had gone before, basically who would potentially be able to challenge the King. We see the results of best under the rule of Richard. The second. Two-thirds grandsons are some of the black princes we've just mentioned. There was a par, struggle that ensued after he tried to increase his own military forces to counterbalance the par of the magnets. And the revenues of John of Gaunt and later his son Henry Bolingbroke, who became a Henry the fourth, where a powerful enough to defend their interests and in the end, overthrow the monarch. Richard of York and war-like the king maker, who, as we've talked before, it was Richard the 16th, or the work. We're able to rely on their networks of retainers to defy Henry the SEC. So this precedent has been created and the time of Edward the third powerful jigs have the resources to take all the king. As we've heard before, a Kcals of the Wars of the Roses was a succession crisis. Basically add with a black prints and lines of Antwerp, both predecessors, their father Edward the third, and his remaining three sounds all have a claim to the throne. But the throne went to Edward, the black princess on Richard the Second, because he was the son of an elder son on the outranked our younger son. So to put that in context, if you look at today's royal family, Prince Charles as the immediate err, prince William, not prints andro or Prince Edward was the same idea. Richard ranked the other sons of Edward, the third. As his grandson on, but there was a lot of uncertainty around the question of the succession because at the time, Richard was aged only ten, little bit of instability occurred. So Richards, heir presumptive was Roger Moore tomorrow, who was the grandson of his eldest uncle, Lima of Antwerp. He was the son by line, those daughter, Philippa. So there was a little bit of a problem there because AdWords, the third issued letters patent that said the throat could only pass down the male line. That may have John of Gaunt and his descendants higher up the line of succession, then line goals via Phillipa. So despite his young age, Richard, the second route with ICT or agency console. Imagine the country being governed by a 10-year-old, basically. And that was to keep his uncle John of Gaunt from acquiring more par, since he basically had a very strong claim to the throne. There were problems with Richard two seconds ran his taxes that he used to pay for failed military expeditions. Lets the Peasants Revolt of 1381, which was a disaster for the monarchy, he feared being dethroned and repeatedly changed his NAND air. For political reasons. Richard looks set to sign a peace treaty which would basically have met a blood. A client came to France, which was obviously horrifying to be English stability and Parliament. Parliament rejected that. And Richard negotiated terms with ICT consulting parliament and not consulting parliament created fairs that he could be a bit of a tyrant. He agreed to marry the daughter of Charles the Second of France, Isabella of Valois. John of Gaunt died in 1399 on Richard exiled his son, Henry Bolingbroke, who went to France, and he seized Bolingbroke Slavs. Bolingbroke returns a knife, 1099s. Richard was campaigning in Ireland. What the support of the nobility, he deposed Richard on the Cam, Henry, the fourth. The succession crisis that we've just talked might lead to two very clear comps. Within the highest of plantar Jeanette, there was the highest of Lancaster at which descended from John of Gaunt who had been married to bunch of Lancaster. This line was actually prepared by AdWords because he wanted the throne to pass through the male line on Vault through the female succession. Basically. There was also a subsidiary of the house of Lancaster known as the House of Beaufort. Ever going to hear a little bit about Margaret Beaufort later? It was descended from John's mistress, Katherine Swinburne. As though they were legitimised by an Act of Parliament when John and Catherine eventually married. But Henry the fourth excluded them from the line of succession. Then of course there was the highest of York. And they descended from admins of Langley, who was the fourth surviving son of Edward the third, whose official title walls, Duke of York. This dissent was in the female line as Langley second son. Richard called his breath, married and more tomorrow on. She was the daughter of Roger Moore tomorrow, who was the son of Philippa of parents, who was the daughter of Lyman of Antwerp. As you can see, they're basically descended from two sons of Edward, the third type of bike keeping it in the family, a lot of inbreeding and the aristocracy at that period, of course, the more tumors were basically the most powerful March or lords and the kingdoms as well as having that bloodline, although it was a female line which wasn't prepared, they also have a little bit of military might behind them. Another big factor, and the outbreak of the worst of the Roses was the RAM of Henry, the thick. Henry the SEC was crowned a month before his ninth breath die. Talking about very young pigs. After the death of his father, Henry the Fifth, his mother married Owen cheater and had to surviving sons by him. Admin tutor, who is the father of Henry Tudor on jasper Tudor, both of whom were key players and the Wars of the Roses to come. Henry the SEC, came of age at the age of 161437. He was very averse to violence, followed the political advice of William Diller Po, the art of Suffolk, who was a major figure in the royal court. He favored a diplomatic rather than military approach to the deteriorating relationship with France. He was opposed and miss by the Earl of Gloucester and the powerful Jake Richard of York. They can give generous land grants and money to Suffolk and the Beaufort family. This took money away from Richard and Gloucester's campaigns and France, which they really resented. And Richard Harvard animosity towards the Beaufort. Suffolk negotiated the Treaty of tour and 1444, and that secured the marriage of Henry the Eighth and Margaret of all j pictured here, who was a relative of Charles the Seventh of France. By marriage, the trading ceded lands to France, which was kept a secret from the English public. But Henry Box, the trade date, Suffolk was even elevate and he went from being and RL2 and Mark Wallace was eventually made a jig. 1447. Suffolk had Gloucester arrested for treason. Gloucester died whilst awaiting trial. Suffolk was suspected of having poisoned him. Richard of York walls demoted from his commands and fronts to the lordship of Ireland from whence he was not able to become involved in the affairs of the English courts or he is effectively gotten rid off for a time. Suffolk became unpopular after losses and fronts and the perception he had had a role and stating man on old Zhou to France, which he denied. He was arrested and 1450 and imprisoned and the Tower of London, he was also impeached and the Coleman's Henry innervated an exile separate for five-years, but he was captured and executed on his way to France, almost Second of May, 1458. The commander who replaced Richard and France, admin Beaufort, who was Jacob Somerset. It took over suffix rule as later of those pursuing peace with France. Summers that was open to criticism. I'm pretty much politically vulnerable. But he became a close ally of Margaret of OJ. Pretty much controlled the king. Rumors started to circulate, but some are set on the queen were conducting an affair. And some claim that her son, Edward of Westminster, who was born in 1453, was actually the son of Somerset rather than a head, right? But we have no proof to back this up. The French reconquest of Normandy beginning and 450s plus a violent uprising and can't wake and Henry, rebels executed. James finds the unpopular treasurer and accused the crime of extortion, electoral fraud, and perversion of justice. And all this paved the way for Richard of York return from Ireland. He depicted himself as a reformer. Upon his return, he was imprisoned between 1450 to 1453. Henry himself pretty much took little parts and these events as he was starting to display the symptoms of mental ill-health, lack of military leadership left English forces and France and pretty much a shambles. And that led to the defeat of form an 81450, which led to the French reconquest of normal day, obviously very, very unpopular at home. The Hundred Years War than ended with an English to F8 on the 17th of July, 1453, icosahedral. England was very much weekend in Europe, having no European lines except the pole of Kali at this point. So Henry suffered a nervous breakdown. He refused to recognize his newborn son, Edward. When the chancellor, Cardinal John Kempe died in 1454, henry refused to appoint a successor. I'm not met the running of government pretty much impossible because the Chancellor was the equivalent of today's Prime Minister. Regency console was established led by Richard of York, who was appointed Lord protector, despite Margaret of algae's objections. And that happened on the 27th of March, 1454. Margaret felt that she should have been appointed as protector. She was worried about the status, safety of her family at this point, Richard appointed his brother-in-law, Richard novel The Art of souls break as chancellor. Thus, alien is Annapolis animate. Henry Parsi the powerful are all over North number lunch that he did gain a powerful ally and novel son, Richard novel, 16th Earl of Warwick, known as the king maker, Richard strip summer set of his possession and have him present and the tar of London then in 1455, completely by surprise, henry med, or recovery. He reversed many of Richard's actions. He reinstated Somerset and he exiled Richard. The arrows up salt spray on war. But the claim of the highest of York to leave the government, henry, some are set and select Nobles has a grid console at left or on the 22nd of May 1454, trying to avoid summer sets enemies and London Richards allies feared being charged with treason. Gathered forces to intercept Henry's party on their way to the console. And this led to the first bottle of Dobbins, the first big bottle of the Wars of the Roses. The first bottle of sin Dobbins happened on the 22nd of May, 1455. Richard of York LAD, between 37 thousand trips towards London, and they were met by hand raise 2 thousand trips. Given the numbers involved, it was, it was amazing, But there were less than a 160 casualties on the Orchestra. One. Henry was abandoned and he hadn't autonomous shop where a Richard's followers find on captured him. Although there were a few casualties, there were some very high profile casualties, including the Duke of Somerset, the North, and Berlant on var1 Clifford. And these were all of Richard's key foes gone and a day. So Richard is in a strong position on HIPAA comes Lord protect or once more, the orchestra at this point very much have the upper hand. War became Richards right-hand man at this point and protected him from retribution and parliament. As commander of the port of call a war, it had control England's largest army. So he has a force to be reckoned with. Margaret. Very much feared work. I'm trying to cut off his supplies, but was eventually forced to turn to him for help. When there was a French attack on sandwich and 1457, that spark fears of analyte French invasion. In February 1456 though, Henry Reagan, friendly Saturday, once again, took over from red shirt. Flighting the king's authority, work independently, attack the Castilian fleet. And May 1458 established contact with Charles the Seventh of France. I'm Philip the Good of Burgundy. He's acting as if he has a right to do this without the consent of the King. Richard and salt spray where someone to London box, they refused to go. Richard instead, some of the novels to lead low castle and the Welsh marches. Work arrived with heart of the garrison from Kali. He's well armed. Margaret was recreating military support for Henry at this point, giving the emblem of a silver swollen to her hand-picked mites on Squires. The 23rd of September 1459, the Lancastrian barn oddly ambushed the orchestra under souls break. The Lancastrian were to faded on barn oddly was killed. September the Yorkers were scattered up Ledford bridge when surrounding the Trollope lab, a defection of works trips from callee. So those trips that he brought over to support him have turned against him. Richard of York, his second some, they are loved Rockland and flat to Dublin. While the novels took Richards air, the RL of March, who later became Edward the fourth to the Lancastrian, appointed the new Duke of summer sat as commander of Kali, but work for tan, the loyalty of the trips wealth, those that haven't turned against him under Sir Andrew Trollope, obviously, the Lancastrian is called a parliament to attend. Richard has SMS soul spray on Warwick. Uncommitted Lords feared for their properties on titles that they didn't go along with us. March 14, Six-Day War Excel to Ireland, protected by the gaskin Lord of dura. They having the Royal Fleet under the Jacob Exeter. He made plans with Brett church and returned to Kelly and let Jane 1468 work salt spray on the URL of March entered London with widespread support, public support. Salisbury besiege the Tower of London, where it can march pursued Henry North. The Lancastrian were defeated at North Hampton on the 10th of July, 1468. Maddie prominent Lancastrian lords were killed and Henry was captured. Once again, the tar Garrison were forced to surrender. When Henry was brought to London, September 1468, Richard returned from Ireland and shocked Parliament by laying his hand upon the throne. That was symbolically claiming the kingship. That would be very shocking. And medieval times, even his allies were stunned that he did this. The judges declared they could not judge who had the right of succession, as it was in quotation marks above the law and passed their learning. Richard did not have the support of an ability and a compromise was reached. The active record on the 25th of October 1468 stated that the throne would pass to Richard upon Henry the sixth death. Disinherited AdWord of Westminster. Many find this unacceptable on hostilities continued. Margaret of algae flat with her son, AdWord of Westminster, with Henry's half-brother jasper Tudor and the Duke of accident to hair-like castle and Wales. The Lancastrian is recruited trips and Wales on the west country. Margaret agreed to cede barrack upon tweet and return for trips and aed provided by the Queen region to Scotland. Mary of guilders, the PRC family who were the gig's up north and Berlant and still are to this day he's still living and ionic Castle, which instantly as a fascinating place to visit, gathered support for the long haul Austrians in Northern England. Richard of York, his second some they are love Rockland on Salisbury headed north to address the threat. Richard's forces were defeated by some are set on the 16th of December, 146 days. And on the 21st of December, Richard reached his fortress, sandal castle. They are Wakefield. The Austrians were comped a byte nine miles away. For reasons that are pretty unclear. He sort aid from the castle on the 30th of December and was killed in the subsequent bottle. Along with Roland works brother Sir Thomas novel, AdWord, the RL of March, took over his father's claim to the throne, New York claim to the throne on became jake of York. Edward wanted to block the cheaters forces from joining and the man Lancastrian Army in the North. He defeated the Lancastrian armies at Mortimer's Cross on the second of February, 1461, Owen, who was the husband of Henry the Fifth widow Catherine of Valois, and the grandfather of Henry the seventh, was executed by Edwards trips. As dawn broke across the battlefield with the par valium, which is a bright spot on both sides of the sunless sort of meteorological phenomenon occurred. An AdWord told his frightened trips, it was assigned that the Holy Trinity supported his cause. Hence, he was later described by Shakespeare as this glorious son of York. So you probably know the speech, not as the winter of our discontent made glorious summer by the sum of York. It's SUM and that became AdWords symbol and it was known as the sum and splendor. His personal Harold. Margaret's trips were exultant after the death of Richard of York and headed south. Took Henry along to make them and they converge. What links straight nurse and Alden, the ancient Roman road on the 17th of February. This case, Margaret one, the Lancastrian is freed Henry and knighted AdWord of Westminster, his son, he then might add 30 Lancastrian later. So at this point, the highest of Lancaster is on the ascent. Warwick took his trips to the marches to mate with AdWords you orchestrates. The line cast strands were unpopular and London, despite Margaret's victory, the residence denied and treat her forces, work and Edward rush to the city where Edward was proclaimed King. Edward the fourth nor the highest of York is very much in par Edward the fourth is on the throne. On the contemporary commentator Phillip to command describe Edward as energetic, Huntsman, affable, an imposing figure and his armor. And that was in stark contrast to the very frail Henry, the sixth. Edward is much more, I'll leader of man. And you can see that in this image of him in the Philippa Gregory novels, he's almost like an all stanza and romantic hero. And the recent sky history series, the rise of the ********. He is depicted as a bit more of a profligates, a womanizer. I don't know what the truth of that may have been possibly somewhere in-between. Edward ordered on attack all the strands and which Warwick was wounded. The Lancastrian commanders were killed. On the 29th of March, 1461, edward challenge the man Lancastrian Army near total and Yorkshire. This was the biggest on bloodiest battle ever fought in England. Some estimate that it 100 of the 50 to 60 thousand fighters were killed. Other side that as many as three to 95 thousand people were killed. And that bottle, Edward won decisively, broke the lung Catherine Parr and the North, the areal of North Cumberland answer Andre Trollope, who was an astute field commander, where both killed. The art of wheelchair was captured and executed. Henry the sixth, along with Margaret and Albert of Westminster flat to Scotland. Edward was crammed at Westminster Abbey on the 28th of June at 1461. While war-like state in the north, Edward pardoned the line costumes he had attended after total, and let them keep their lands in order to keep the pace. Basically, work became England's most powerful magnets. He inherited both his parents lands on titles. So he is our live work and our souls. Plus he was mad high Abdullah of England on steward of the Duchy of Lancaster. He is not a force to be reckoned with. October 1461, margaret of only Zhu invaded England and captured ionic and Barbara castles, as the York is trigone them after only three months, revolt broke out and Northern England and spring 1463, although it was put down by works younger brother, John level, who was the first mark was Montague at hexane on the 15th of May, 1464. Not everybody is just going to instantly accept your orchestra. The Lancastrian commanders, the Duke of Somerset, barn Ross, and buyer and hunger suffered where all executed. Henry the sixth was captured and taken to the tar of London. But resistance to Edwards rule was not over. Edward chose not to kill Henry. Asset was better. It was Henry who had the Austrian claim. He was frail and not a figure to really fear. Whereas the young AdWord of Westminster posed a potentially bigger threat. He and his mother went into exile and they went and sheltered with Louis the 11th of France. Adword favored an alliance with bargain day as his foreign policy and Europe. But work won't attend to agree to a treaty with France. That meant meds adsorbing my ride to Louis the 11th sister-in-law, bona off Savoy or his daughter Anna France. Work was ridge to learn that AdWords had actually secretly and impetuous bee bite a relatively low ranking Lancastrian widow called Elizabeth wind belt. Some of her 12 siblings have married and a powerful family legs. Work couldn't control the situation. He couldn't control the Advil family. Edwards Privy Counselors very much disapproved of his marriage, that he should have married politically and strategically. And basically he has done anything but work, is not a friend to the window from late. And he actually accused Elizabeth and her mother, Jocasta of Luxemburg, of witchcraft. That then the mind too much. He was unsuccessful and he managed to maintain his relationship with AdWords. Despite this not you've probably heard of medieval wet chance. There are many interesting documentaries on this topic. And actually witch hunts continued all the way through to the Stuart periodic. It was in a way similar to a Keasling. People have certain misdemeanors today. If you really wanted to take someone dying, you accuse them of witchcraft. Button this occasion, the queen, just Wednesday on this one, she is too powerful, work against nothing by making this accusation where I can self was open to the accusation. He had purposely deceived the French and trying to agree on this trait day that involved in marriage. And so he was a grave because he felt his reputation have been tarnished and he'd been made to make a full. Elizabeth's family rose to prominence. Her father are all rivers became Lord High treasurer and he supported Adwords Burgundy policy. Edward completed a secret treaty with bargain date and October 1466, leaving work to continue pointless negotiations with the French. The relationship between work and AdWord the fourth is starting to unravel. An advert farther provoked war by removing his brother from the position of Chancellor, refusing to permit a marriage between his daughter Isabelle and AdWords brother Jacob Clarence George plantar, Jeanette. Currents also resented Edwards interference and this plant marriage, 1469 or rebellion and Yorkshire broke ICT under the leadership of someone called Robin of raids, Dale other, we don't know what his true identity was. It was followed by a Lancastrian revolts and restoring a Henry the sixth as King. Henry per se as RL of Northumbria island. This was crushed by the setting R0, John Melville, who was warrants brother work and Clarence use the cover of the revolts to raise trips, basically, an early July they traveled to Calais and work oversaw the desk on wedding of as about unclarity, they got their own way despite AdWords Express wishes, work plan to replace adword with his brother Clarence. Ach coat, on the 26th of July, 1469, raid steels forces defeated royal trips and then executed the Arles of Pembroke and Devin other Ragsdale himself was apparently killed. Rivers on his son Sir John Advil, were murdered, which must have been horrendous. For Queen, Elizabeth would vote. She lost both her father and her brother. After the battle, Edward was captured by George naval and held metal and Castle. The rabbit soon realized that their allies work and currents did not have support. And so afraid AdWords and September and resumed his ran. In March 1470 worth and Clarence started a full-scale revolt. And Lincolnshire, they wanted to lure Edward north where he would be captured by work. On the 12th of March 14th, 70 Edward the feted, the rebels at loose coat failed. There, later was captured. Barn will obey the later revealed work and currents as the partners on chief provoker of the revolt. 25. Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville : In this section of the course, we're going to talk about the final plantar, Jeanette kings, the final York kings. We've talked a little bit about Edward the fourth and the previous video, but now let's talk about a marriage that rot medieval society. The marriage between Edward the fourth on Elizabeth wind belt. Now I, one thing they did not marry for is political expediency. This could have been a marriage of love. Some see it as a marriage of luster. So there's different ways of depicting these characters. Recent romantic novels have depicted Edward the fourth is almost a romantic hero. Marrying Elizabeth would vote for love. And she's a bit of a Cinderella figure, rises from a lowly status to become the queen. Some others see her as actually quite manipulative. And Edward, the fourth hot reputation as a rail all art womanizer who ended up marrying Elizabeth would vote because she wouldn't sleep with them. Otherwise. You can make up your own minds. But let's hear a little bit about their love story. The marriage between Edward the fourth and Elizabeth would vote Brook with royal convention and it caused a star f naught and all light scandal. It hot political ramifications because it lacked the areal of Warren who was trying to negotiate a marriage between AdWords and a member of the French royal family with egg on his face. Basically, it completely took away the possibility of a marriage based on strategic foreign policy. And kings were expected to marry based on strategic foreign policy on shore up their position with a really solid much. Elizabeth was actually considered a poor choice for several reasons. She was a Lancastrian, bit of a problem there. She was a widow who already had two sons, Thomas and Richard, from her marriage to the Lancastrian. So John Gray, so she wasn't a virgin, bit of an issue in medieval times, but from AdWords point of view, it was clear that she was fertile and that was very important and acquaintance. She was older than AdWord by five years. Not to our modern sensibility, that doesn't seem to matter very much, but fertility was everything. A queen. Succession crises left eye country and total instability and the queen was responsible for producing heirs. And so the fact that she was a little bit older other not by any means, elderly walls I'm issue. She was the daughter of a lowly night. Nights were actually not lowly, but compared to a king, she just wasn't the kind of status that you would expect of someone who was going to become queen as the daughter of Sir Richard would vote, who later became our rivers. Elizabeth. I ever came to embody the ideal queen or the lady of LET medieval literature because she was beautiful, submissive on fertile and she was a support to her husband. She was married to him for 19 years on. They ended up having ten children, seven daughters on three sons. Only five daughters actually survived to adulthood. She was a very, very different figure from the queen who had gone before the very start of non-controlling Margaret of ONJ, who was a military leader and not the sort of feminine ideal of the middle edges. Elizabeth was actually closer to that because she very sensibly stayed out of politics. Not perhaps because she didn't have opinions, but because that was what was going to keep her safe, basically. How I did these lovers meet? Well, they may have met in childhood because Elizabeth's parents served and ruined when Edward's father, Richard Duke of York, was left-handed of normal dice. So it's possible they met then, or that they met at court in the 1880s after Edward's victory at total and 1461 and his subsequent accession to the throne. The width both basically font themselves on the losing side, but nevertheless, Edward stayed at their home and grow Bay and last Asher and Jane, 1461. I am. What caused that? Well, we're going to find the ICT in just a moment. He ended up pardoning the windmills and they became your casts. Some historians believed, but Elizabeth actually resisted Edwards and thoughts as on moral grounds. In other words, you wouldn't sleep with him unless they were married. She wasn't going to be a ***** or a mistress. And hence he proposed marriage in order to suggest her am a hotspot kind of reputation at the time. Her moral objections may have been legitimate. She really didn't want to do this or tactical new we see on the left, who ended up married to Elizabeth's grandson Henry the eighth. Doing something very similar because she wants to be queen. She does not want to be a mistress. That seems unlikely of Elizabeth though I don't think it's what most historians believe her personality was like. There's an enduring story of their mating very much featured. And the Philippa Gregory novel, the white queen, that goes along baselines. Elizabeth, who was newly widowed and vulnerable, appeal to William Lord Hastings to add her in a dispute with John Gray's mother. She was sad to wear that for Edward under an oak and wet mulberry forest to appeal to the king for her sons inheritance. When he rides along on his white horse, of course, stays the beautiful and vulnerable, whether he instantly falls in love. The pair of Mary and secret sometime before September 1464. The wedding was actually kept secret from Elizabeth's father, though her mother, Jakarta of Luxembourg, was very much involved. And they were buried at the chapel at grow by a very lowly plants fricking to be married and not in the splendor of Westminster Abbey. And he's not exposing his new queen to the public. He knows there's going to be resistance to this match. Some historians believe Edward was already married at the time or hot participated in an earlier sham marriage. And this was because under Richard the third Robert stealing the Bishop of bath and wealth, claimed to be aware of an earlier marriage to Eleanor Butler, told that she was conveniently dead by the time. We're any witnesses. And so Richard, he was Duke of Gloucester at that point in lord protector used this alleged marriage of his brother to declare his nephews illegitimate, and to declare the marriage between Elizabeth and AdWord void. And he then took the throat. We believe the story or was it convenient fabrication? Adword, dead have a reputation as a womanizer though, and the secrecy of the wedding did little to protect Elizabeth and her children after he died. There were some very difficult times during their 19-year marriage, Edward was deposed and then reinstated to the throne on he faster billions on Exile. The couple were quite often separated on sometimes for long periods of time. Edward did have mistresses and clearing Jan shore famously towards the end of his life, that was actually considered normal at the time. A may not have been the source of conflict between the couple, but it obviously would be today, mad more actually expected to refrain from sex with pregnant lives. And Elizabeth had ten children. There was a period in her life where she was pretty much perpetually pregnant and it was actually considered good for amounts health to go and have affairs while his wife was pregnant. I know that sounds absolutely bizarre to the modern edge. Bob, for you not to have them at stress, but thought was high by thought, especially in aristocratic circles. Although Elizabeth was very much Edwards queen and her position was never threatened by another woman. The Family Life of AB with a fourth and Elizabeth would vote seems to be fairly stable. Public perception, though not always favorable. The web films were seen as social climbers and they were there for unpopular. In court. Though, young prints AdWords care at Blue Castle shows that his parents cared about his education on his pastimes and who he was spending time with. So they were very much taking an interest in their children's lives. On Witnesses described the royal family is closed. That's the royal family as an Edward the fourth on his wife and children. When it comes to his brothers, he had his brother George drawn to the wine, and then his brother Richard had Edward's children declared illegitimate and then presumably murdered them. They're not entirely a functional family, although I would argue they're probably not as dysfunctional as the thought may have Henry the second. Well, we've pretty much say in this course that the ontogenetic, we're not a loving child bunch when it came to family gatherings. Elizabeth of York, who was the eldest daughter of Elizabeth, would vote and Edward the fourth, supported her sisters when she became Henry the seventh Queen. She was always close to them. Edward Elizabeth marriage. There appears to have been a strong one was strand by AdWords, conflicts with various nobles and the involvement of the width votes, court and tricks kind of pick their tool on the marriage. Elizabeth wasn't a political science crazy. And our modern age, the way things work at this point in history that we're living in now as the royal family, because they represent the history of the state. And ours heads of state, not in a political sense, have to be a political. Because the moment they comment on a politically contentious issue, they can't be representative of the whole of British society. Not so medieval times. I mean, we can say some queens and very strong opinions. Eleanor of Aquitaine, of course, joined rebellion against her husband than we've seen Margaret of OJ believing that she should be protect her leading military campaigns. But Elizabeth knew that it was a wiser approach to be apolitical. Adword died unexpectedly and April 1483 at the age of 41. Now that was considered middle aged for the day and he wasn't quite as fit as he used to be. But still, his death was a terrible blow to Elizabeth until the family, and it put them in danger. Elizabeth, second son from her first marriage, Richard Gray, was executed under Richard the Third. Elizabeth knew she wasn't dangerous, so she sought sanctuary in Westminster Abbey, taking all her children with her, the New King Edward the fifth. Richard, he was then Duke of Gloucester. They, lord protector managed again custody of her second son by Edward the fourth retro Duke of York. The two boys, now known as the princess in the tar, completely disappeared in the summer of 1483, presumably murdered. So that's three of her children, dad, around this time. Elizabeth's father on one of her brothers were also murdered. Her eldest son, Thomas, actually joined the tutor, calls after the execution of his brother Elizabeth, as well, a grace to join the cause of Margaret Stafford, the mother of Henry Tudor, to abandon her murdered sounds onto keep her adult are safe. So she agrees to a marriage between her eldest daughter, Elizabeth of York and Henry cheater. That marriage united the horses of York online castor and brought the Wars of the Roses to an end. Often lead a very public life. Elizabeth retired and seclusion to Berman COP at her own request. When she died, she was buried in a humble grave besides the fourth and some George's Chapel Windsor, near those of her children who had died in childhood whose bodies have melt being lost because the bodies of her two sons who had disappeared and the tar hadn't ever been fond. Though she went through this period of incredible pan on, she lost so many people who were close to her. Her daughter became queen of England and her grandson Henry the Eighth and his descendants would be some of the most famous monarchs in British history, all from a very humble ancestor. 26. The Princes in the Tower : Now let's talk about one of the most enduring medieval mysteries, the disappearance of the princes in the tower. Who were the princes and the tar? They were the young King Edward the fifth, aged only 12. But remember Richard the Second was king edge ten. Richard of SRE spray the Duke of York, edged just nine. They were the surviving sons of AdWord, the fourth on Elizabeth would vote. They had had another brother are called George, but he had died on May TEA. Their father had died. And April 1483, Richard Duke of Gloucester, who was their uncle, lord protector, launched them in the Tower of London, supposedly to prepare for AdWords of fifths coronation. And that was actually the tradition at the time that the monarch stayed in the Tower of London before his coronation. Gloucester, though hop them declared illegitimate and ascended the throne himself as Richard the Third. The boys disappeared with either trace. Sometime in the summer of 1483. They were presumably murdered, but all the evidence that we have as circumstantial, there's actually no proof they were murdered, although it seems most likely. Stories circulated that the boys had escaped and later pretenders appeared, such as Lambert signal, who claim to be AdWord the fifth Perkin war back who claim to be Richard. As trees break. They came along during the reign of Henry the seventh and almost started a rebellion in the case of war back until he was executed. Some believed that Elizabeth would fill, had swapped the young Richard of Sherry's break for another boy when Richard of Gloucester came to take him from our sanctuary in Westminster Abbey. That's a story that features and the popular novel, the white queen by Philippa Gregory. But it is a story that has existed for centuries. Basically, WebEx claim was actually supported by the boys paternal aunt, the Duchess of Burgundy, who had been born Margaret of York and was the sister of AdWord the fourth. So it did have some credence at the time. These per boys and up in the Tower of London. Well, when richard of Gloucester received the news of Edward the fourth death on the 15th of April, 1483, he went to York minster on publicly swore loyalty to the new King, Edward the fifth. The covalent chronicle tells us that before his death AdWord that fourth half named his brother Richard as Lord protector, but the console was not bind to honor AdWords wishes on Richard's position was not assured. Edward, the fifth habit to London from Laidlaw castle and sharp shirt, and Richard from Midland Castle in Yorkshire. And they met at Stony Stratford on the 29th of April, 1483. All did not go well. Richard had Edwards retinue, arrested, including AdWords, maternal uncle Anthony word, volt-second RL rivers, his half brother, Richard Gray, who was Elizabeth Wood Wilson from her first marriage. They were by habit, on the 15th of June, upon to fracked castle. Gloucester took custody of the young king and Elizabeth word beau, took her younger son on her daughters on flat to sanctuary and Westminster Abbey. She was clearly very, very afraid at this point. Adwords of his coronation have been postponed from the 4th of May to the 25th of June. On the 19th of May, he took up residence in the Tower of London, as well as traditional for a mollic before his car nation. But the Tower of London was also an impregnable fortress. On stronghold, a very good place to imprison new king. On Sunday the 22nd of Jane, Dr. Ralph Shah, who was the brother of the Lord Mayor of London, delivered a sermon and claiming retro Duke of Gloucester was the only legitimate heir of the highest of York. Retro behind the Serbian, we do not know, but it's getting ICT a message that's gonna be very useful to Wretched of Gloucester on the 25th of June or grape of Lords and nights and gentlemen, as they were described at the time, petitioned Richard to take the throne. Parliament later backed up Richard's claim that the boys were illegitimate in 1484 with the touchless radius. That was an act that claim that Edward the fourth hobby, married to Lady Eleanor Butler at the time of his marriage to Elizabeth Birdville. That marriage was invalid and the children illegitimate. Richard the Third was crying on the 6th of July, 1483. We don't have a lot of contemporary records of the disappearance of the parenthesis and the tar, which they were referred to letters slightly romantically, of course, Edward the fifth was a king. So it's not technically a totally accurate term. But we do have one contemporary account by dominant Mazzini at an Italian religious figure who was a frequent visitor to London. And he recorded. After Richard became king, the two boys were lodged and the inner apartments at the tar, in other words, somewhere that they couldn't be saying where they were shielded from view and that they were seeing less unless he related that AdWord was frequently seen by a doctor? No. It is entirely possible that the boys could have died from natural causes on Bain L, because deaths and childhood were not uncommon in the late medieval period. What is more disturbing as Mercedes assertion thought, like a victim prepared for sacrifice, AdWords, salt remission of his sins by daily confession and patterns, because he believed that death was facing him. The boy was 12 years old. Eye witnesses reported saying the boys playing and shooting arrows and the grounds of the tar, but there were no more sightings of them after the summer of 1483. It's generally believed that boys were murdered. But historians differ on when anti, not so much on who killed them, as we'll see later. Morris Cain, the historian believes that the rebellion against Richard the Third and 1483 was originally and rescuing his nephews, but it was too late. They were already dead. And so in Buckingham joined, the focus shifted to the cause of Henry trader because Buckingham knew that the boys were already dead. Basically, That's one school of thought. Most accounts were written retrospectively and believed to be based on tutor propaganda. Of course, it's suited the tutors to depict Richard the Third as a total monster. Because basically Henry Tudor had killed and replaced Richard. We have to bear that in mind when we're looking at documents that were written some time after the disappearance of the boys. Let's talk a little bit about contemporary and later reactions on that note, European politicians, including the French politician Phillipa coming, stated that Richard had killed his nephews. That was widely believed to come in Nim the Jacob Buckingham as the person who actually carried out the murder. He was Richard's right hot-line. His account as retrospective though after the accession of Henry the seventh. Chitter propaganda, as we've mentioned, depicted Richard the Third as a monster. On Thomas More, who was devoted to the jitter calls, wrote the history of King Richard the Third, and around 1513. That's he claimed that Richard's followers or jams Tyrol, how fast to orchestrating the boys DAF, on Richard's orders, there were apparently two henchmen who is smothered the boys with a feather bed, then buried them under a stairwell and the Tower of London before removing the body's letter to a secret location. Chiral was executed for treason and 15 O2, and he supposedly confessed to his row of the murders under torture. But there is no confession. We don't have a written copy of his confession, so we've only got Thomas More's word for ads on. He was very pro Tudor. One of the henchmen who allegedly killed the boys though, was miles forest and his sons were members of Henry the ants court. Also more could possibly have met them on gulp this story directly from that. As a possibility. Shakespeare depicts Richard as the murder of the princes, of course, famously using more on Holland sheds Chronicles which were written in the second half of the 16th century as his sources. I'm, it's of course she experienced depiction of Richard the third. That is, the idea of Richard the Third that most prevails in the public consciousness. Bodies have been found over the centuries are bones that could potentially be the remains of the princess and the tar grit. I can hear you saying count they just DNA test these bones and find out whether they are the parenthesis. Well, there are reasons why that has some toppings on some complications which are going to hear a bite. And I 1674 at the Tower of London to small skeletons were fund and a wooden box at the photo stairwell and the white tar by workmen who unfortunately carelessly threw away the bones that caused them to become mixed with check-in and animal bones and the rubbish heap, which made it harder to examine the bones centuries later. They were salvage though as they were widely believed to be the remains of the princess and the tar at the time. Other children's remains had previously been found and around which had been walled up. And these could also have been the parenthesis. There is this ghastly phenomenon of the medieval period known as the oblique net, coming from the French, the word oblique to forget. Where if you wanted to kill someone, you throw them into a room and then just Brecht it up and let them suffocate and starve inside. There's actually an oblique cut and a medieval castle there may really eerie, grizzly place to visit. Horrible idea. Anyway, the staircase in question had been built after the time of Richard the third, but the location partially matched. Thomas Mirza, kind of the princess being buried under stairs. Though he had claimed that the bodies had been moved. But because it seems sort of partially much as story, that same debate, enough proof to some people to suggest these bones. Hard to me, the princess. The bones were buried by Charles the second and the wall of the Henry the seventh Lady Chapel at Westminster Abbey with a monument by Christopher Wren, who designed the noise standing St. Paul's Cathedral. And you can see it pictured here to the right. The bones were examined in 1933 by anatomist Professor William Wright, the api's archivist, Lawrence Tana on George Northcraft, who was president of the Dental Association. The bones were found to be children, the right edge to be the princess. Many bones were missing though because of the carelessness of the wet ma'am, I'm not included the larger skeletons, jawbone on teeth. No attempt was meant to ascertain the gender of the bones on one criticism has been that it was just assumed that the bones were those of the princess. And so they investigation was sort of slumped it and that direction, erase and petition calling for DNA testing of the bones was closed months before its expected closing date. That had reached a 100 thousand signatures. It would've had to have been debated in parliament, but their happiness shoes and that our current Queen Elizabeth the second, will not give consent for Rho remains to be exempt on subjected to DNA testing. So she will not give permission for these bones to be tested. Modern DNA testing and carbon data and could actually identify the bones, but it couldn't tell us the cause of death or who killed the boys if they were murdered. These were not the only remains that refine that could potentially be the remains of the princes in the tar. In 1789, workman nuts and George's Chaplin Windsor accidentally opened the tomb of AdWord the fourth. And Elizabeth would vote on find a small adjoining volt containing the coffins of two children. The team was raised, sailed without further inspection. The names of George Duke of Bedford who had died edge to a merry of York who had died age 14, were inscribed on the team. They had both predict their father Edward the fourth. So that would have been there longer than his headband, basically high ever to lad coffins labeled George Ponto Jeanette and Mary plantar Jeanette were found elsewhere in the chapel. So basically these kids had to grants, and that is a bit strange. These were discovered during the excavations for the tomb of George the Third, and 1810 to 13, they removed to the vault adjoining Edward the fourths chain, but nobody tried to identify the body's already there. So there's two sets of remains for H of these children, as I say, and that's a bit of a mystery itself. Our request was made and the 1990's to examine the term via optic fiber or examine the lab coffins box. And Elizabeth the Second, has not granted approval for any exclamations of royal romance. So I know that you're all really busy people watching this course. But if anybody feels like it would be a thing that they could manage to do to write to Elizabeth the Second and ask her to ally some investigation into these remains. It really would be great. You never know Prince Charles might be more open to it and the future when it's his job to give approval. Let's talk about this medieval murder, a mystery. And we look for means, motive and opportunity and a murder. But first of all, let's consider the possibility they died of natural causes. Well, why if they had died of an illness, would Richard the Third not have made that known, or whatever physician was attending them have made that known because Richard the Third was very much vilified because of the deaths of the boys. He is of course the prime suspect. So let's look at his kids first for and against Richard the Third. Definitely have the most to gain by the boys deaths, but he also had a lot to lose. He became known throughout Europe and throughout history as a child murderer, which obviously didn't do him any favors. An attempt hopping mid rescue the boys though, and his hold on the throne walls wake. Maybe he panicked and have them guilt, wretched, didn't try to prove the boys were alive when he was accused of their murder. He couldn't produce living boys, and he didn't order an investigation into their disappearance despite declaring his innocence, we clearly knew what had happened to them. Even if he wasn't the one who murdered them. He was in New York as heartlands at the time of that disappearance. So he couldn't personally have killed the boys. More likely that he ordered somebody else to do it. Some historians believed that the rapid career advancement of Tyrrell corroborates Moore's account that turmoil had overseeing the death of the boys, although no actual confession has been found, as we mentioned earlier, I'm Marissa count as retrospective and it's very much slanted towards supporting the cheater regime. And it's our only source for the story. Richards contemporaries, most notably Elizabeth would vote. The boy's mother thought him guilty though. She came out of sanctuary by making Richard swear to protect and provide for her daughter's, making the possibility of them being quietly murdered on the side, a bit less likely. Henry the seventh bill of attainder against Richard does not directly mention the princess, but accused richer off unnatural, mischievous on grit padres, homicides and murders and sharing of infants blood with many other wrongs, ODS, offenses on abominations against God and man. Of course, at roles and Henrys and trust to vilify Richard. The only other individual named by contemporaries as having been implicated in the deaths of the princess was hand raise Stafford, second week of ******* him. He was Richard the thirds right-hand man, but he was also descended from Edward the third himself. I may have hoped to take the throne one day. Buckingham's execution and October 1483, as thought by some historians to be because Richard had the princess murdered Buckingham font either binder, I was really shocked. However, a contemporary Portuguese documents suggests and tally the opposite, that Richard appointed the Jake to care for the boys and that he basically starve them to death. The historian Michael Bennett suggests backing him could've killed the boys on his own initiative, saying, after the king's departure, Buckingham was an effect of control of the capital. It is known that when the man, Matt, a month later, there was an unholy right between them. Maybe Buckingham took things into his own hands and Richard was horrified. We just don't know. But why would richard not publicly accused Buckingham if he acted alone whenever his reputation was being damaged throughout Europe. And also he was fascinating rebellions and loss of support at home because of the disappearance of the boys. On also, would Buckingham have been able to act without the support of the king because he would've needed Richards authority to access the princes and the tar. And presumably he would have fared the par of the king if he had done something. So Manager would like the king's permission. The third, and in my view, least likely suspect is Henry. Henry the seventh executed rival claimants including John of Gloucester, who was Richard the third is illegitimate son. So he did have a pattern of killing people who stood in his way to the throne. But he was in France until 1485, and he couldn't have killed the boys until after his accession, and they were last seen in the summer of 1483. He married Elizabeth York, the princes eldest sister, and it was not in his interest to have her remain legally illegitimate. He needed the children of Elizabeth were Advil and Edward the fourth to be legitimate. Some believe that he had the princess killed in 1486 and then circulated the story that Richard had done it. But we've seen that people believed much earlier than that. The story was circulated widely. A couple of years before that Richard had done it. Elizabeth would vote, would've known that the story was untrue and that has been given as a reason why Henry confiscated her lands and hot her confined to Burma and CRB and 1487 and February 1487, and she died there six months later. None of Henry's contemporaries, including his enemies, ever implicated him and the deaths of the parenthesis. And arguably, elizabeth of York and Henry Tudor would not have had the happy marriage that they are believed to have had. If Elizabeth had believed that Henry had murdered her brothers. He fasts pretenders, as we've mentioned before, elaborate seminal Parkin war brick. And he never produce Baldi's to confer. The princes were dad because he could have produced some remains and sad, they were murdered by Richard, but here's their bodies. He didn't do that. So it's most likely that he just knew nothing about. Another person who's been implicated. More in modern times because of popular novels is Henry's mother, Margaret Stafford. That seems very unlikely. She wouldn't have had access to the Princes in the tar. It would've been very difficult for her to murder them herself or have anybody else to it. So that seems to be a bit of a modern invention. I leave it up to you, who you believe killed the princes of the tar for my money. I think it had to be Richard the Third. 27. Richard III: In this video, we're going to talk about Richard the Third, not, I know that he's come into the stories of other people that we've been talking about. But he is himself a fascinating figure of English history, sometimes thought of as one of the greatest monsters of English history. You can say in this most famous of portraits of him, this slightly rounded shoulders, the reference to the hunchback that Shakespeare made him famous for. Their appears to be something going on with his left arm. But where are those things actually true? Because the problem with the story of Richard the third Is, it comes to a secondhand via the cheaters. Henry Tudor, of course, defeated Richard the Third and took the throne. And so it was n his entrust to half posterity believe that Richard a theorem is a bit of a monster. So his body was discovered in 2013 that cast some new light on Richard the Third. Let's have a little look at this man. You can make up your own mind a bite. His contribution to English history. Here we see in McCallum as Richard the Third, the evil later in the film version of the Shakespeare play. It's really Shakespeare who for centuries give us our perception of Richard the third. And here's the very famous speech from the play, Richard the third night as the winter of our discontent made glorious summer by this son of York. And we know that the sun and splendor was the Sehgal of AdWords, the fourth. So that's who that's referring to. But this speech has some interesting things to say about Richard. For example, the line, but I am not shipped for sportive tricks nor mid to court and amorous looking glass. I, that I'm rudely stamped and what love's majesty to struck before a wanton ambling nymph. In other words, he's not very good looking. There's something wrong with his appearance. So that's one perception that's being creative of him. Not just that he's been beaten with the ugly stick, but that he is deformed unfinished, sent before my time into this breathing world, scarce half meetup. In other words, he was born prematurely and had some kind of disability or disfigurement as a result of that? There is no evidence for that. We think the scoliosis of the spine, which Richard the third hat, which is probably actually not apparent when he was wearing clothes, was actually something that developed in his teenage years. Then we have some comments on his character, not just his appearance. I am determined to prove a villain hit the idle pleasures of these days, plots have I laid inductions dangerous by drunken prophecies, labels and dreams to set my brother Clarence and the king and deadly hit the one against the other. So Richard as a schema on a manipulator who caused the discord between his two brothers. And we know of course the AdWords had his brother George Duke of currents drawn and avant of red wine or while he had him executed the wine. But maybe a legend, but it's a story that's lasted through the centuries. Shakespeare Plans Richard for this, but he blends in front, even worst crime, as we read on. I unsettle false and treacherous this day should Clarence closely be made up by the prophecy which says that g of Edwards Air is the murderer, shall be very squarely blaming Richard the third for the deaths of the princess and the tar. He is the most likely candidates that has to be sad. But this perception of Richard the Third, before the discovery of his body was the one that endured the test of time. Shakespeare, of course, was trying to ponder to the cheater regime of the day. And it was in their interest to vilify the last ontogenetic king, as I've already sad. So he had his own agenda for writing what he wrote about Richard the third on this perception stayed with the public consciousness for centuries. But walls he really all about, well, we know that we have to sift the information that we have a bite time carefully. He did do some positive things including developing the system of bail, the presence being somewhat overcrowded at the time. And he also created courts so that people who couldn't afford Lego phase could have their grievances heart. And that was a very positive thing. Developments in the field of law that have lasted right the way through to the present day can be attributed to you, Richard the Third. He was also a skilled military commander and he was a competent administrator, especially in the North of England during the reign of his brother Edward the fourth. But And it's a very big, but there is the issue of what happened to the princess and the Richard at 1 was very popular, especially in the North of England, thought of as a safe pair of hands, but it's really the disappearance of the boys. But change his reputation. Richard the third lived from the second of October 1482 until the 22nd of August, 1485, the day of the Battle of Bosworth failed. He was the last York King. I'm also the last plantar Jeanette King. And his defeat at the Battle of Bosworth by Henry Tudor, of course, mark the end of the medieval period in England and the beginning of the Renaissance. It was actually 11th of 12 children born to Richard Duke of York, ancestrally level. So at the time of his birth, no one would have imagined that one day he would be a king. 1459, Richard of York, Richard the third is father, and his followers were forced to flee England. Richard and his brother George where cared for by their aunt on level and eventually he would actually marry someone called on level as well. On level, this level was Duchess of Buckingham. Her son Richard's chasm, the Jacob Buckingham would be one of Richard's greatest allies on also betray him in later life. He was possibly also partly raised by Cardinal Thomas Porsche, who was the Archbishop of Canterbury. He had a very, very unstable childhood. Basically, his father and his eldest brother, Edmund Arlo Rockland, were killed at the Battle of Wakefield on the 30th of December, 1468, when he was only eight years old. Richard and George were then sent to the Low kinase and Northwestern Europe by their mother for their own safety. They lose their father, they lose their home. It's very de-stabilizing. They returned when the forecasts won the battle of totem and 1461, a decisive victory for the work site. And Richard's elder surviving brother was crammed Edward the fourth on the 28th of June, 1461. Having been fearing for his life, he's a prince on a very important figure. Richard was named Duke of Gloucester, which was his primary titled before he became king, was also made on light of the Garter analyte of the buff, pretty high standing for a nine-year-old. And actually at the edge of only 11, Richard was appointed commissioner of a ray and the Western canon days. So in other words, he could call man to arms at the edge of 11. Anti actually have his first independent military command by the edge of a May 17th. His education partly took place at Midland Castle in New York shirt, and that was under his cousin Richard novel, Earl of work, known as the king maker of figure we've heard a lot about in previous videos. Work actually oversaw Richards training as a night. It was pretty important that man of the royal family have military skills. And this also kind of ne, Sais Shakespeare's idea that Richard was born with a deformity. He was obviously seen as being fit enough to train as a night and TBI and nitrogen pretty much dead have to be very fit. I was told that character burgers Council in Northern Ireland, that a lit medieval knight's armor way to something like five stone or the metal, but they wore to be able to move a byte and move at speed with that kind of width loaded onto you, you needed to be fit. Richard later married, works daughter level. The relationship between Edward the fourth on work became strands because Edward oppose the match between Richard and an MAB helps put them on the throne, but his wanting to be associated with the royal family, maybe Edward saw that as slightly over reaching high. Ever married his daughter Isabelle to george Jacob Clarence Richard on AdWords brother with ICT, The King's permission on that was really crossing a line. You needed the king's permission to marry into the royal family. And so this is disrespectful of Edwards possession. George joined works revolts were robbing his father-in-law, of course, against Edward, but Richard remained loyal. Other there were rumors that he was sleeping with ADH, which is something that Edward would not have approved off. Let's talk a little bit more about Wernicke's revolt. During the 1880s rebellion, Richard escaped capture by works brother John Neville, first mark was of multicolored right from childhood. He has these periods where he has to go on the run. Basically. Richard flat with AdWords to bargain day in October 147, day after work defected to join Margaret of orange, of course we remember was the wife of the last Lancastrian King, Henry the sixth. Edward actually paid for their passage of the ships with his Coke just took his coat off basically and Honda over. Because he had nothing else to his name at this point. Upward on Richard sister Margaret was married to Charles the Bold, which you could bargain day. He actually wasn't very helpful and didn't really supply much ed to AdWords. But then Louis the 11th of France declared war on bargain day. He can take it you use AdWords help in England. So at that point, he decides to support AdWords. Richard and Edward left flushing for England on the 11th of March, 1471 with money about £20 thousand. Not too sure what that is in today's money, but a lot. Thirty-six ships on 1200 men supplied by Charles the Bold when they landed in England, the city of how actually refused admittance to Edward. We don't want any trouble here, that kind of arbitrary. But he did manage to enter York. And he did this by using the same argument that Henry Bolingbroke, who later became Henry the fourth, how to use and 1399 before deposing Richard the Second, that he was there to reclaim the Duchy of York, or the title of Duke of York, not the throne. That was, of course, not the truth, but it was good argument. Retro began to show his skills as a military commander around this time and his brothers campaign to regain the crying and he was a key military figure in that compound. Edward was restored to the throne in 1471, and shortly afterwards, Henry the sixth was fine dad. It was really victory is at Barnett on CEG spray that got him back in the throat on Richard played a key military rule and both these bottles. Let's talk a little bit about Richard as a military commander. You can see him pictured here to the right on horseback, which is often high. We think of him, of course, that is because of Shakespeare and Y2. A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse onto all that. Anyway, Richard is thought to have been Edwards chief left-hand and gathered his associates to his brothers cause. George jig of Clarence eventually reconciled with AdWords, rejoined his brothers faction, deserting Wallach. Richard is thought to lead the vanguards at the Battle of Barnard's, one of the most important battles in AdWords campaign on the 14th of April at 1471. That battle, how many Holland, the third GQ of Exeter walls to fate to also work. The king maker was killed in that battle, a huge loss for the house of Lancaster at the time. Richard lost members of his household and the battle. I'm not suggesting he was in the thick of the fighting. He was not just up the front, staying away from the action and he certainly wasn't on the sidelines. And that was his style and conflict. That would also be his style. His final Battle of Bosworth failed. He also loved the Vanguard at the Battle of CEG spray on the 4th of May, 1471. He was then med comfortable of England. And so he was one of the people who decided the fits of the captured Lancastrian, most of whom were executed. He was also involved an AdWords campaign and France and 1475, but he objected to the eventual trade date as he felt AdWord was making personal gain from a campaign which have been funded by parliaments, in other words, which have been paid for by public money. So Edward is profiteering from public money on retro doesn't like that. So a little bit of a moral stance coming through there from a character who history tends to judge as being quite MRO, just interesting little glimmer. Let's talk a bit about retrograde fabled deformities. You can see a picture here of Laurence Olivier playing Richard the third with the famous hunched back on some issues with his arm all coming from Shakespeare's depiction of him. Of course, we think that it was during his teenage years, as I mentioned before, Richard developed a sideways scoliosis of the spine. And we're able to digest quite a lot about this because of the discovery of Richard's remains. So Dr. Joe Apple Bray of Leicester University modeled Richard the third spinal column with 3D printing, concluded that the scoliosis can be hidden under clothes. I was probably not disabling. Not something that you really would have noticed if you'd round them late, met him actually one documentary on the Discovery of the remains of Richard the Third, the king of the car park, which I will link to in the course resources, suggested that on horseback, Richard was probably much more comfortable, unable to maneuver, and probably looked quite imposing. Richard's marriage. It was a very important marriage and it provides some great opportunities for Richard, but it also calls an awful lot of discord with his brother George Duke of Clarence, and a lot of headaches for Edward the fourth. Richard married on level, the daughter of the art of Warwick on the 12th of July, 1472, after the Yorkers victory at Shakespeare and her father was dead by the stage. She had previously been my two, edward of Westminster, who was the son of Henry the sixth. I'm Margaret of OJ. And it's believed that that marriage was never consummated because margaret of osha, you believed she could find someone a bit better for her son? Basically, a bit. Higher status. Edward Westminster died at the pathologic spray on the 4th of May 1471. So Lancaster has gone down. York is going up and ends up on the other side when she buries Richard, basically, as we've mentioned, where it can already died. George jig of Clarence resented the match. He was of course my right to Isabel, who was an SR and where it had died and there was the issue of inheritance. George famously said that Richard may well have my Liddy sister-in-law. A buffet shall have no livelihood. Dare not on it. And it's about his mother was the conscious of warlike. She was the one who had the title and the Earl of Warwick have gained his title from marrying her. This Alden, which was a powerful one, walls out stick. At this point. When George's approval, Richard seeded the lungs and titles at the bottom of warlike plus the buildup of salts break and gave George his title of grit Chamberlain of England. So he seems to be able to make sacrifices to keep the pace. Or if there's going to be some game down the line. He did high ever again, some things. From the marriage, Richard returned to the Arlo who works for photo the states, of course he had died a trailer to add where the forth these included pen riff, sheriff Hutton, and middle and he lived at Midland with AMA. That's where he had been raised on, educated, as I'm sure you remember. The march could've been denied papal dispensation on the grounds of Collin's sign guanidine because clients was married to ancestor. But this actually doesn't cause an issue with the church. Although currents himself raised as an issue. In June 1473, the context of Warwick came to live with Richard and, and so she seems to be siding with them. And this family feeling. In 1474, parliament was called because it was getting build a joke. The squabbling between the royal family. Edward attempted to reconcile his brothers with both receiving the work inheritance as if the contest was naturally dad. Not very nice for the contest, not to still be alive, but be legally thought of as debt. But that's what happened. George's objections that Richard's marriage was valid. We're addressed by AdWords, but at this point, George was falling out of favor with AdWords anyway. When Isabel died, for example, he threw our massive strop and walked out of court. What Edward would not permit him to marry Mary of Burgundy. Relationships there were strand, aside from Richard. George, we know was eventually executed for treason. On there is the legend that wave mentioned before the advert hot him drawn and a lot of red wine. And that's the way that I personally would want to go. Richard had had only one son, Edward of metal. Him, who was born sometime between 1474 on 1476, but sadly he died in 1484. Not long afterwards also died. Richard actually plan tomorrow. Joanna, who was princess of Portugal. There was a couple of reasons this didn't happen well, but he didn't live very much longer. Also thought Joanna was very religious and she'd turned on suitors because she wanted to follow a religious life. So that didn't work out. He had at least two illegitimate children that we know of whom he acknowledged, John of Gloucester, and of course, Richard was Jacob bolster on Catherine plantar didn't. We can't really talk about Richard the Third without talking about his impact or his role in the North of England, he was actually the dominant magnets that was powerful figure in the North of England during the random, his brother Edward the fourth, and he was well-respected in the city of York. Edward gave him par and the North on some historians believed he had intended to make Richard Lord of the North. Neither could have been two reasons for this. One that he really trusted him on that wars with Scotland were possible at the Edward needed someone defending his interests in the North. The other is that being so active and the North kept Richard away from the royal court on, so he didn't have his finger on the pulse of what was going on in the royal court. That would suggest this trust on the part of addressing opposing views there. When Richard took the throne, he created the console of the North, which was like an offshoot of the man Royal console on. He appointed his nephew john doula Po, the first Oliver Lincoln, as its president. From the mid 14 seventies, as we've heard, Richard's responsibilities and the North kept him from attending court often. So he becomes less of a figure and the general royal court, but a very big figure in the North, basically, by 1480, war with Scotland looked lightly. Louis the 11th of fronts sought alliance with the Scots. I'm not allowed to fears of a French invasion of England on Richard was going to be a key figure and having them off of anything happened. I'm worried, did eventually breakout in 1488. Albert didn't turn up and you just never arrived to lead the English army. That was left up to record. It never became an actual all light war, but there were sporadic skirmishes right the way through until 1482. Then Richard retook the border time of Baraka poem Twain's and added the conflict now I thought might have been J2 Richards military ability and also partly due to infighting and the skeletal camp. So high did the trustworthy, dependable richard of Gloucester become the reviled Richard the third. Well, that's finite. All the 9th of April, 1483, Edward the fourth died and was succeeded by his 12-year-old son, Edward the fifth. Richard was named Lord protector. And it's believed that ED, with a fourth hot, asked Richard personally to become lord protector after his death. And that suggests that actually he did trust Richards and that he'd given Richard part of the North because he trusted him. Richard then left Yorkshire for London on all the way. He had a ridge to mate onto a window or a Rivers, who was the brother of Elizabeth would vote the larger queen on the 29th of April. Anti-tank with them is cousin Henry Stafford, the second GIC of Buckingham. Rivers was escorting the young Edward the fifth to London with two thoughts and man up the darker queens request she knew that her son would need protecting. Richard. A bucking in-between them had about 600 men, so they couldn't have been perceived as too much of a threat to the two thighs Ant Man that Lord Rivers was commanding. Advert the fifth himself was in Stony Stratford at the time of this meeting, so he wasn't present for what happens. It all began amicably enough, but Richard had URL rivers. Elizabeth would vote son Richard Gray by her first marriage, and his associate Thomas von, arrested by the end of the meeting. They were taken to pontificate castle on executed for treason against the Lord protector. The 25th of June, the 1st of Richard's tyrannical acts. Rivers had appointed Richard as executor of his. Well, what you will hit obviously once being trusted after the arrests, Richard and Buckingham went to Stony Stratford uninformed, the 12-year-old Edward the fifth, that there had been a plot against Richard what was not under control. And then they are scores of the young king to London. They reached the capital on the 4th of May, 1483, up first retro gloves Edward and the bishops apartments. But then Buckingham suggests that he'd be moved to the royal apartments at the Tower of London. That was the place that monarchs traditionally resided when they were waiting for their carnation. Know their walls, that tradition, it was a royal residence, but it also made a pretty good president. It was somewhere that the young king could be kept ICT of sight. Richard lived and style at the very grand Crosby Hall. Holland chance chronic, one of the key historical documents at the time tells us that little by little all folk withdrew from the tower on drew onto Crosby's and the bishops get straight where the protector kept his household. The protector have the resort, the king and matter desolate. Richard as living in much grander style than Edward. But there is another factor to this. If the staff, various members of court are slowly moving over to Richard titled fan, what is happening to add with a fifth as less unless there are less and less people to notice what's happening there. And that's another one of the reasons why I think in the grid who'd done it of the princess and the tar, that Richard the Third, pretty much had to be behind their deaths. When Elizabeth width bullet heard of her brothers arrest, she was clearly completely terrified. She flat to sanctuary with her other son by Edward the fourth richard of Shrewsbury, or also known as Richard Duke of York. There are five daughters on Thomas Gray, who was her son from her first marriage. Richard wrote to Ralph lord novel the city of York and various other people to seek their ad against the queen. Her blood adherence and affinity, whom he purportedly suspected of plotting to murder him. It becomes a word, vowels versus Richard situation. Out of consummating of Tower of London on Friday the 13th of Jane at NIH. This is not very auspicious as it the area surroundings of the Tower of London. I'm the 13th of Jake. He accused borrowed Hastings of conspiring with the Windows using his leverage and Shore, who was also Thomas Graves lover as a go-between Thomas More who serve the traders. So it was very pro Tudor. So we have to take this with a pinch of salt standard that Hastings was taken outside and just summarily executed. Others were arrested and cleaning. The Bishop of ALA. Hastings have not been attempted or formally charged with any crime. Retro, took his widow Catherine, who was a member of the powerful level family under his personal protection amid some personal gain from that. All the 16th of Jane, I don't know why Elizabeth would fill haunted Richard of SRE spray over to the Archbishop of Canterbury so that he could attend his brothers correlation because it really would have been a public relations disaster for Richard. Richard of SRE spray, not been there to watch. His brother and his mother was already holed up in Westminster Abbey. It was clear that not everybody trusted this map. Then richer plays a very unexpected move, according to the memoirs of French diplomat Felipe to convene Robert stealing Cotton, who was Bishop of Botha wells and form Richard the Edward the fourth happy married to Eleanor Butler at the time of his marriage to Elizabeth were Advil. This rounded their marriage invalid on the children, illegitimate. On Sunday the 22nd of Jane Ralph Shaw, who was the brother of the Lord Mayor of London, preached a sermon on the steps of some Paul's Cathedral dynein saying Edward the fourth children as a legitimate, I'm naming Richard as the rightful king. Night to preach this on the steps of St. Paul's was like broadcasting and all the ten o'clock news and the modern day. That was the way that it was going to reach the most people and how the most cravings citizens of London, nobles and commoners alike, created a petition calling on Richard to take the crime. Why did they believe the story? Why did they just automatically believe the story? Isn't it just a little bit convenient that this marriage turned out to be valid? Well, Richard had actually not been an unpopular figure up to this point. He'd been popular in the North of England team is a safe pair of hands. The story just, it did have a level of acceptance. Richard accepted this petition on the 27th of June. I was Richard the Third at Westminster Abbey, almost 6th of July. Parliament later confirmed his right to the throat and the touchless radius, and January 1484. So that really short up his possession. Of course, Edward the fourth sons, disappeared from public view in the summer of 1483 at the ages of 129, never to be seen again. After Richard carnation Yan'an began what was called a royal progress. They toured the country, maintain their subjects, and they were meant to sort of do something useful during this time. They died King's College and Queens College, Cambridge, and they gave grants to the church. Richard also plant a chocolate York minster. York minster is pictured here with over 100 priests of something very grand. And he finds it the College of Arms, which still exists to this day. But all did not continue to go well for Richard the third, 1483, a conspiracy arose among disaffected York, as gentry. Put it this way, Edward the fourths, really young sons had completely disappeared on even if he'd been an all lights don't York as before that, but walls horrific. It was just horrifying to people. This conspiracy was led by Richard's former close ally, right-hand man. Basically I'm chasm the jig of Buckingham. And it actually started out as the Beaufort conspiracy. Margaret Beaufort was the mother of Henry Tudor, who had align castrum plan to the throat. She won't deceit are some of the throat and Elizabeth would vote, had lost her two sons by Apple the fourth, her eldest son from her first marriage, and her brother, she had really good reason to hit unfair Richard. These two women cooked it up, but again, traction when the Jacob Buckingham joined, basically, it has been argued by some historians that it was easier for Richard to personally blend Buckingham and call it Buckingham's rebellion. Rather than admit he had lost the support of the orchestra, which was humiliating. Lacking a risk, a large force from his estates and Wales on the marches. Henry Tudor, who had been chosen to replace Richards and this code, because it saved apparent by the stage that Edward the fifth was dead, was an excellent Brittany. There he had the support of one of the latest PLL day, we hope for a Bretton alliance with England. Henry Tudor sailed to join Buckingham, but a ships met with a storm and were forced to return to Brett nasal. All did not go well. Buckingham's forces and conjure the sandstorm and they deserted when they were met by Richard's forces. Richer had a grit or forest, and also Richard was a seasoned military commander and someone to be fair. Buckingham try to escape a disguise, but what was discovered, we don't entirely new high. It's thought it may have been because. He was turned down by one of his own man. As Richard offered are quite generous reward for Buckingham's capture. He was beheaded for trays of insoles break. Richard offered loan day while he had wanted in the first place English ed and return for Henry Tudor. Henry Tudor flat to Paris. And was there he gave the support of the French regent of Bourgeois. She gave him troops to invade England in 14851 of the most famous bottles of English history, which really provide the changed English history. The Battle of Bosworth failed. So, uh, Monday, the 22nd of August, 1485, Richards larger force met the troops of Henry Tudor at the Battle of Bosworth, failed. Richard the Third was a seasoned and skilled soldier with a large force. And Henry Tudor was basically a kid with a smaller force. So it looked like a foregone conclusion, but of course we know it wasn't. Richard wrote a white coarser, and of course there was a particularly fast and strong horse. And so this was a PR move. Richard astride the White Horse very much looking like a Rail Canada rail. Later, estimate suggests that Richard had it thaws and trips and the handmade 75 thousand. Richard's fib is cry of treason before falling from his horse is believed to be an aimed at barn Stanley, who was married to Margaret Beaufort, who was the stepfather of heavy Twitter. He had just been met or of Darby and had been in favor with rhetoric. Basically, his younger brothers, Sir William Stanley and other recipient of this cry of treason, and Henry Parsi Oliver North of Berlin and the case of Henry Parsons, we didn't know why he was included this because he had the reserve behind the king's line and he actually couldn't have advanced to help Richard unless there had been a general advanced by the road side. I'm not hop on. Ostensibly, he didn't really do anything wrong, so we don't know what that was about. Stanley's and action and otherwise just laughing. Richard lose and his brothers support of Hami cheater were big factors and Richard's to fate of death. Another factor might have made the death of John Howard's, the Duke of Norfolk, which would've had a demoralizing effect on Richard and on his trips. Richard personally led a charge and to animate ranks thought was his plan was just a charge into the enemy ranks. I'm personally killed Henry Tudor, thus bringing the baffle to an end quickly, but that's not what happened. Contemporary accounts say he felt briefly an airplane before coming AS sorts length away from Henry Tudor. So at that point he was surrounded by Sir William stylings, man on killed John Melbourne. They, burgundy and chronicler tells us that Richard's horse became stuck, a marshy grads, a Welshman to strike the deathblow. So that's a contemporary account. Either the discovery of rich two thirds remains and 2013 revealed that he had received a lava wins and cleaning many blows to the head. So he must have lost his helmet on some 0.1 of these handlers was what killed him and it was caused by some kind of weapon on a blurred have been used to cut away the back of his skull, which is pretty grim. You can see his skull pictured here. Richard the third was the last English king to be killed in battle. He was also the last York escape the last plantar that King, I'm the last medieval king because with Henry Tudor or Henry the seventh, we move into the Renaissance period. His burial, well, at the time Richard's body was stripped naked, fog on the back of the horse and taken to last or it was abused along the way. It was pretty horrible. Early sources suggest it was displayed at the charge at the annunciation of Our Lady of the New York. Because Henry Tudor needed people to know and know for sure that Richard the Third was definitely debt, was buried at gray friars charge and Lester, over the centuries became coverage by a car park. Henry the seventh at the time paid for a barbell, an alabaster monuments. So he doesn't show total disrespect to Richard and death. Know Richard as buried at Leicester Cathedral. 28. Finding Richard III: The discovery and identification of the romance of Richard the third is what are the most exciting historical moments of our lifetimes, bringing together medieval history and mystery with modern science, archeology and technology and artist stray to create something really exciting. On the 24th of August 2012, the University of Leicester, Leicester City Council and the Richard the Third society. And not just that, they were beginning a search for the remains of Richard the third. And this happy to instigated by political fill the Langley of the Richard the Third society night. The Richard the Third society or Ricardian, as they're known, can be viewed by the history community as Bang. Well, they're quite geeky, really. They made online and discuss topics such as high. Can we prove that Henry Tudor really killed the parenthesis and the tar, which he couldn't have done because he was in France. Phillipa likely herself, was criticized by some for saving to believe that she had some kind of psychic connection or a very emotional connection to Richard the third. But derided as she may have Baden, she started something really important on she was successful. I have to say that if I had to have a historical dinner Gaster, a psychic link with some historical figure probably wouldn't be Richard the third. But Eleanor of Aquitaine, I think in my case, you might think about who you would like to invite to dinner if he could invite ME historical figure, but I digress. So the archaeological project was led by the University of Leicester archaeological services, known as CLAS, the animals to discover the site of gray fires church, which had been demolished during the dissolution of the monasteries under Henry the eighth, one of the biggest acts of cultural, social, and artistic vandalism. Pretty much ever known. Many important things were lost at that time by comparing fixed points between mops that were viewed in their historical chronological order. The site of the church was located and it happened to be at a modern day city-center car park. That's where its foundations were fined and they were clearly identifiable. During the day on the 5th of September 2012. On the 7th of September, the five, the location of Robert Hare x garden, where there had been a monument to Richard and the early 17th century. So they knew they were on the right track. Quite implausibly. As soon as they began digging, they had actually find a skeleton. And it was beneath where the church is Choir would have been. The skeleton was fund under on our side. And the car park are for reserved, of course, but it also seemed to mark the spot of Richard racks. On the 12th of September 2012, it was announced that the Romans could be those of Richard the Third, and that they would undergo scientific testing. And there are several reasons why they felt they could be Richard. It was a male Skeleton with severe scoliosis of the spine, which was something that Richard had been famous for, possibly making one shoulder higher than the other depending on the severity of the condition that they individual have experienced. There was also what looked like an arrowhead and better than the spine other that later turned out to be a Roman nail that had been in the grinds at the time Richard was buried. But there were also injuries to the scalp which had occurred at the time of death. And these were pretty grisly injuries. Injuries included a shallow wound, most likely caused by a roundels dagger, a dagger used in the Middle Ages at depression and the skeleton made by our large bled, most likely a sword. There was also a big gaping hole where part of the scale has been cut away. The forensic pathologist, shared Hamilton concluded the wound would have left the brand visible walls, most likely the cause of death, but there was another entry that could also have been the cause of death. The base of the skull presented this injury where a bled had basically been shoved and at the base of the scalp up to a depth of 10.5 centimeters. This individual happy, very, very harshly traded on people definitely welded him Dad. Other entries that the skeleton showed or injuries to the jaw and an injury to one of the rib bones. I'm an injury to the pelvis which had begun selected after-death. And what came to be concluded was that after-death, Richard's body had been tied naked to the back of a horse with his arms dangling, done one side on his buttocks up the other. Ad on liquors basically abused the body and someone came up on stopped him with incredible force. And the right buttock and NGO time all the way through to the pelvis. And it's possible that the body suffered other humiliations that just aren't visible. Skeleton but the am walls to basically purposefully dishonor the corpse. Genealogical and DNA research back in 2004, how trace the matrilineal descendants of Richard's elder sister out of York, Duchess of accident. And that's important because for DNA testing, you need the matrilineal line for mitochondrial testing. The Canadian joy Epsom Knight, Brian was fun to be a fixed teeth generation grit mace of Richard the Third. Her mitochondrial DNA was tested and it was fun to be and the haplogroup j. So the scale Athens Dan I would need to be and not Sam grape in order for an identification to be mad. Joy Ibsen had actually died in 2008, so her son, Michael EPS and give the team a DNA sample on the 24th of August 2012. Everybody where they don't tend to hook. It produced a positive identification of the remains as Richard the Third. And the University of Leicester formally announced on the 12th of February 2013 that Richard the third is remains have been identified. Very exciting for everyone involved. For the public. The mayor of Leicester unlocks that Richard the Third would be reentered atleast or cathedral in early 2014. But I've judicial review delay the reentry measurement by a year. Museum to Richard the third opens and an old Victorian school house that was just opposite to the gray friars church. And 2014, then a group of people called the plantar Gina alliance on 15 collateral descendants. People descended from the siblings of Richard the third. Plans that Richard the Third would have wanted to be buried in New York. After all, he was a member of the highest of York, either Michael epsilon who had supplied the DNA. Basically the closest living relative, supported Lester's claim. After all, it had been the University of Leicester who had gone to all this work and finding the romance. They authorization for the excavation actually had a legal clause in it which required Richards reinterpreted and luster, but a judge permitted this to be challenged. Although he said that the grapes needed to avoid the Wars of the Roses part two, in his words, it was eventually decided that Richard could have millions of collateral descendants by this point in history, the groups claim to represent his wishes and be the only people who could speak for him was no. And May 2014, the legal decision was made that there was no grinds for a court to enervate. The Romans were reentered and Leicester Cathedral on the 26th of March, 2015. And I don't know if you watched the reinterpret service, which it's possible today on, I'll link to it. Just a modern funeral of a medieval king. It really well is fascinating. Richards romance were carried and procession to elastic a Federal all the 22nd of March 2015 on they were reentered on the 26th of March. So it had that kind of lying and state. I'm Tim Stevens, special blaster, and Justin well-being, the Archbishop of Canterbury officiate it. And the Duke and Duchess of Gloucester, because of course, Richard Happy, Duke of Gloucester and the Countess of West x represented the current British Royal Family. The actor Benedict Cumberbatch, who played Richard and the hollow crime, read a poem written by the poet laureate Carol Duffy. The tomb also showed a lot of Modern Art History, other nodding towards the medieval and have been designed by architects. Hand again on the tombstone had a carved cross, add a block of white swale Dale fossil stone which had been quarried in North Yorkshire. So we have to have that Yorkshire elements with Richard the third, of course, there was a plinth of dark Academy marble, which included Richard's name, his dates, and his motto, roiled, say mallei, loyalty binds me. His coat of arms was also shown. Michael Epson, who had supplied the DNA, actually personally crafted the AUC lead lined coffin and which Richard as buried. It was a very somber occasion and this was whatever we may think of him. You might think of him as a monster or someone who is misrepresented. But here was a young man who had died and there was actually something incredibly sad about it. But more was to come on. An, another medieval secret was to be revealed basically. On the 11th of February 2014, the University of Leicester analyzed Edward sequence the entire genome of Richard the Third and his living relatives. The first historical figure where that was ever possible, not the matrilineal side was pretty much as expected, but the paternal side differed from expectations, showing no links to the descendants of Edward the third, who purportedly it was Richard's great, great grandfather. And that revealed there must have been some kind of covert illegitimacy, the high supplant alginate. So that was pretty and trusting. On the fifth of February 2013, Professor parallel Wilkinson of the University of Dundee carried out facial reconstruction of Richard the Third. And that was commissioned by the Richard the Third society. The face that was produced as described as warn, young, Ernest and rather serious. Have a look at the fifth of Richard, the Third. 29. The English Renaissance : The English Renaissance saw huge changes in terms of culture, society, and the economy. All coming from a really interesting new technology that hadn't been available in the medieval period. So let's hear a little bit more about printing. The printing press. Basically, the printing press changes the world forever. By the Chinese have been printing for centuries before the Europeans thought of the idea. But the printing press made changes and religious life at med, changes and cultural life. And it basically fundamentally change society. So M51, Pope Alexander the SEC threatened excommunication to anyone who printed materials without the church has permission button nevertheless, only 20 years later, books by religious reformers, John Calvin on Martin Luther proliferative. I believe at 1, something like two to 300 thousand pamphlets by Martin Luther where disseminated because now you could get ideas out there in a way that wasn't possible in the medieval period. In the medieval period, book square pin strikingly put together in monasteries. And books were written on vellum chi hide, which was scratched with costly colored eggs. So it was a very time-consuming and difficult process to make a book. And also a book was something that could take a year to make. So it was very valuable. The inks used to make the books were very costly. Your average member of the public just didn't have access to an awful lot of literature. And of course, the printing press changed all that. In 1605, Copernicus published on the resolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. We're starting to see the emergence of science on observation. And also neither is a method of sharing those observations. With the creation of the printing press. The first newspaper relation appeared in Strasburg and 1605. Let's talk about Vis gentlemen, Yohana is good and buyer could gave us the Gutenberg press on the Gutenberg Bible. Unchanged Europe forever. You have this. Gutenberg was a goldsmith on a political exile from months and Germany, who began experimenting with printing and Strasberg and fronts and 14, four-day, the Gutenberg press was ready for commercial use in 1450. So it came some time to develop the process in order to create larger volumes of texts, Guttenberg use replica casting ladders created and brass with replicas mid from these modes by pouring molten lead. This created movable type night that was already in use by the Chinese. It was not created or originally invented by Gutenberg thoughts of a misperception, but movable type used metal blocks for each ladder. And gutenberg also invented Inc., which would stick to the metal. He used a wine press to flatten the paper. 1452. He borrowed money from a guy called Johanas first on printed calendar is pamphlets, etc. But no books. Books were still fairly difficult to produce them fairly expensive at this point. But in 1452, he published his only book, the Gutenberg Bible, a Latin Vulgate and print. He printed a 180 copies of the 1300 page book. So even with the printing press and not having to write that by hand, it was still a difficult procedure to make up a Bible. Up to 60 of these were printed on vellum or chi hide. The books contained 42 lines of Gothic type, uncolored ladder. So very beautiful to look at. Still a work of art. Because of course, in the medieval period, books have made incredible works of art. I mean, think of the Book of Kells for example. Guttenberg use 300 separate letter blocks and 50 thousand sheets of paper. 21 completed copies of the paper Bible survive, and for complete velum copies. And if you happen to have one of those in your attic, you would be pretty meant that because these are the most valuable books in the world. The last one that's sold, sold in 19.397845 million US dollars. Even at the time though not everyone could afford one of these Bibles. At the time of printing one copy sold for 30 Florence and thought was the equivalent of three years wages for a Clark. Most members of the public couldn't just buy a book up that point. The Bible's were actually initially bought by monasteries, universities, I'm very wealthy individuals. The Gutenberg Bible provided on an influence on later additions to the Bible and 90 addition to the Vulgate circulated as printing became more common in Europe. In 1455, first foreclosed on Guttenberg and along with German calligrapher Peter shelf or acquired all his equipment. And the resulting lawsuit couldn't bark, kept printing though until 1468, and he died in 1468. Printers had learned the trade from him, however, and they spread up. By 1470, Italian printers made a successful trade to use modern parlance. Printing was nice thing. Also in 1470, German printers were invited to setup process at the Sorbonne in Paris and printed textbooks, printing and spreading throughout Europe. The new technology of printing started a very important movement called the Reformation. The Protestant Reformation was a religious, political, intellectual, and cultural movement which began in the 16th century. Protestants doesn't protesting because it was to do with protesting against certain things that were happening within the Catholic Church. It was led by European reformers such as Martin Luther and John Calvin. One of its major proponents in England was King Henry the eighth night. There is a misconception that Henry the AMF invented a new religion in England. He didn't really, he made use of a religious movement which had begun in Germany and Switzerland and in other parts of Europe that had actually infiltrated end-to-end gland on debt exists there. But he met at the official state, religion for reasons of his own, which we will see. This movement challenged papal authority, and it argued for religious and political redistribution of par. That obviously was gonna cause a little bit of instability. That the Catholic Church had been a very powerful institution within Europe for a very long time. The reformers use the new technology of printing to grit avail, and distributed hundreds of thousands of pamphlets encouraging people to read the Bible for themselves. Because prior to the printing press, the Bible was interpreted for church goers by the NIH people are being encouraged to read it for themselves and interpret it for themselves. Martin Luther published his famous Ninety-five faces and 1517, a list of propositions for the reform of the church. For example, they really didn't like the selling of indulgences, which meds, a lot of money for the church, believed that people's sins were between themselves on God. Not gonna go too much into depth on the theology of it, because that's not the purpose of this course, but I'll certainly link to information about the Ninety-five Theses of that, something that you're interested in. Luther was professor of moral philosophy at the University of Wittenberg and Germany, and he was also an Augustinian monk, so he was very much a Catholic and it wasn't necessarily his M to create a new charge, but he really wanted to reform the church. He sent the feces to Albert of Brandenburg, who was Archbishop of events on the 31st of October at 1517. Neither stint as considered the beginning of the Reformation on Reformation day as of the 31st of October. He may also have nailed them to the door of all things church in Wittenberg. Legend has it that he did on the other churches in the area. The k belief of all this was that the Bible, not religious tradition, should be the source of spiritual authority. And that is the belief of so-called evangelicals of today, the evangelists bank the gospel on the idea that the text is sacred, not necessarily the traditions of the institution of the church. In 1524, Luther was someone before the Diet of Worms, excommunicated and the Diet of Worms and English, doesn't that sound like a terrible phrases, verbs. The diet was actually like a judging panel. I commit to you to make a decision and they decided that they were going to excommunicate Luther for his radical views. He was then sheltered by Friedrich the electrode Saxony, and continue to publish pamphlets or the priesthood of all believers as he saw it. So he's very much using this new technology of the printing press to get his thoughts like they're inspired by Luther. German peasants revolted by the end of the Reformation and the bike 1555, Lutheranism was the state religion of Germany, Scandinavia, and the Baltics. Now another prominent figure of the Reformation was John Calvin. And he was a French exile who settled in Geneva in 1541 after writing Institutes of the Christian religion. And that began the Swiss Reformation, Calvin believed in a thing called predestination, basically that you didn't choose golf or the God had chosen you. His beliefs created a culture of Astaire morality. Protestant exiles flopped to him in Geneva and his ideas spread the scotland, France, Transylvania, the low countries. So they're spreading widely throughout Europe and the Netherlands. Calvinism remanded cultural and economic force for 400 years. The whole idea of the Protestant work ethic, fat and to the economic life of the country and promoted a certain kind of capitalism. In England, Henry the eighth became a key figure and the Reformation, as we've already mentioned, Pope Clement the seventh refused to permit the Henry to divorce Catherine of Aragon, his first wife, who had produced no male heir. And response, Henry declared himself head of the church in 1534. Notice he doesn't create a religion, create a church. He just declares himself had of it. He dissolved the monasteries on confiscated their wealth. If he wants to create new church for themselves, was head of it. That seems like a logical thing for him to do, but it was an awful thing to do. I know I've mentioned this when we talked about the discovery of the body of Richard the third. So many things were lost because of the dissolution of the monasteries. And because I'm a medievalist and that's my area, I have an exocrine with Henry the Eighth. He destroyed countless artifacts, texts, records, and monuments from the medieval period. He also worked to place the Bible and the hands of ordinary people there. Because remember we mentioned before that there was a period in history where people just couldn't afford it. From 1536, every parish, it was required to have a copy of the Bible. When Henry the eighth died, his son Edward the Sixth, continued Protestantism as the state religion. What she was pretty much gonna do because if he had become a Catholic, well, the Catholic Church didn't recognize henry's divorce and not would've met Edwards and legitimate. He died after only six years, was succeeded by his sister Mary, the first, who imposed her reaction or a Catholicism on harshly punished Protestants at night. Her mother had been absolutely humiliated when Henry the eighth divorced her, and she had suffered quite a lot. So Mary had a personal ax to grind. She was also like her mother, a very divided, a Catholic. Mary, well, succeeded by her sister Elizabeth the 1st. And Elizabeth saw the Church of England as a middle ground between Catholicism and Calvinism. Of course, the Catholic Church had to respond in some way to what was going on on an England, the Counter-Reformation was lapped by the Council of Trent, which met sporadically between 1545 on 15th, 63. New religious orders, most notably the Jesuits, where established at this time. Following the Reformation, there were rebellions, wars on prosecutions at certain periods of time in England, it was very dangerous to be a Catholic. At other periods of time, especially during the reign of Mary, the first step was very dangerous to be a Protestant. Also, this change in religion met a change and the networks of par that led to a lot of instability and a lot of bloodshed. But it also led to the music of Bach, the art of the Baroque period, and flooring of the arts and philosophy. Let's talk a little bit about the arts culture on society. Neither beg, changed, that came out of the reformation, which impacts people who aren't Christian as well as people who are, as we start to have this thinking about the individual. And that is not a concept that we had in medieval times and it's very much a problem with concepts in modern times, the role of the individual in relation to society starts to be something that people focus on. The individual has their own relationship with God, but doesn't just work itself ICT within the social structure of the church. This idea of individualism is a big component of the English Renaissance. The English Renaissance was a cultural and artistic movement which began in the early 16th century night there was a pan European Renaissance. Generally what is referred to when people use the term when they assaults Renaissance, of course, meaning rebirth. Toboggan, an athlete in the late 14th century, Northern Europe generally was lit to the party in terms of the Renaissance. Incidentally, the gentleman you see pictured on this slide as William Shakespeare, one of the most famous figures of the English Renaissance. They English Renaissance was at its zenith and the Elizabethan era, it's dominant art forms were literature and music, whereas the Italian Renaissance had focused on visual art. And you get all those beautiful pandemics by grandmasters from the Italian Renaissance. Of course. Some amazing literature came out of England around this time. There was a tradition of literature in vernacular English. I'm not increased with the use of the printing press during the 16th century and was encouraged by the Protestant Reformation, which called on people to read the Bible and subsequently other works for themselves. William ten Dale's translation of the Bible and Vernacular English in 1526 encourage the publication of other works. And Vernacular English, they're not just Latin works, works of the classical world, other, there was a fascination with the classical world in the Renaissance era. I will then renaissance literature. So Roger asked him who was an influential scholar and was cheater to the teenage Princess Elizabeth, believed that speech was God's greatest gift to humanity. Animals definitely have it. Only people speak, so to speak or write pearly was disrespectful. Elizabeth pick this up and became a patron of spoken arts. And so the peak of drama and poetry and English occurred during the Elizabethan era, where we have people like William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Edmund Spenser, whose works are still very widely read today. London's growing and increasingly affluent population loved the theatre. There were also developments and philosophy and worldviews, intellectual spheres that wouldn't have been possible during the medieval period. Intellectuals at the time such as Thomas Maurer, Francis Bacon on Thomas halls wrote on things like empiricism and that's the belief that life has experienced via the senses. Materialism, in other words, that matter as the basis of all things including consciousness night, that would have been actually offensive to the medieval mind, which saw God or spiritual things as the basis of consciousness, especially as the basis of all things. The scientific methods, not quite as we know it today, but the idea of having a hypothesis and then observation, experimentation and conclusion that's starting to develop around this time. Also the idea of the social contract. And that's the relationship between the state and the individual unnoticed again, we're starting to focus on the idea of the individual a bit more than the Renaissance period. The influence of that way of thinking was that the individual has consented to relinquish certain freedoms to the state. The burgeoning world of science. That Baconian method by Sir Francis Bacon was a forerunner to our modern scientific methods. He put forward this idea in his book Novum organum. The title actually references Aristotle's organism, which was a trade is in logic. So there was a fascination, as I said earlier, the classical world in this period of English history. And so this book was published in 1620 and it focuses on careful systematic observation. It wasn't that people didn't carefully observe things in the medieval period, but when they did, they didn't have the means of sharing those observations which the printing press made possible. Architecture in the Renaissance is a fascinating area. Renaissance style actually didn't really emerge until the time of Elizabeth the first, with the exception of buildings such as Hampton Court Palace. And that was built on the time of Henry the eighth. On here it is very impressive building. You can see the kind of narrow windows on the narrow tars. Tall chimneys. Even if it's fascinating red brick color or very Renaissance. The world tread which have made a lot of money and the Medieval period was winning. There was less money for building. Elizabeth the First then created a lot requiring people to wear a woman hats on Sundays. I know I'm not making that up. Elizabeth also encouraged farming and that made a lot of people affluent. Elizabeth herself belt no new policies, but she encouraged her courtiers to build nice modernizers and accommodate her on her summer progresses where she turned her LMS. So by doing that, she found herself with some pretty sweet places to stay. Here's an example. Burton Agnes hole, which at the time I'm recording this has belong to the same family for it 100 years. Again, look at the chimneys, the height. There's a lot of windows, the red brick. This period that many small houses, some of which is still survive today. I'm civic and institutional buildings were built on a famous style of tutor building, whilst the prodigy highest. And a good example of this as Hardwick Hall, which was described as more glass than wall. And here it is, not glass, Wilson expensive commodity after it showed that you were wealthy, hence the whole superstition up, breaking a mirror, being seven years bad luck because if you were a laborer and you're carrying a mirror and you dropped up, it might take you seven years to pay it off. Church buildings continued to use the Gothic style that have been used in the medieval period, such as Langley chapel, built in 1601. Here it is. You can see that the building is very, very simple because there's two different approaches to church buildings. And this time, one was fill your church with beautiful artworks because that is glorifying God and the other walls, the glory of God as niche. So keep it simple. Both those styles can lead to quite beautiful buildings. 30. Margaret Beaufort : The cheater devastate was in power for about a 118 years. And to put that in context, the ontogenetic dynasty had lasted for a byte 300 years. So other, the tutors weren't the longest running Dennis state and English history. They were one of the most influential. And some of the changes that happened in Tutor times still impact us very much in the modern day. But we can't talk about high. They came to par without talking about this lady who only held the NAM cheater for a very short period of time and is mostly known to history as Margaret Beaufort. She is a figure who has been much more lined throughout history and sometimes judged. And her depiction in modern popular culture is a bit unflattering. For example, I've been watching the White Queen, the stars TV show based on the Philippa Gregory novel. And it almost makes her ICT as being somewhat deranged. Sky histories, the rise of the ******** talked about her not an unflattering terms, but dead Make eye that she was quite manipulative. My personal view of her is as a mother with brands who was fighting for the survival of her son and her family. But let's look a little bit at her life and see what you think. I've written here that you don't have to be upfront or center stage to change history. Margaret Beaufort was very much one of those people who changed history from behind the saints underwear reasons for that. She had been born into the house of Lancaster. Her son had a Lancaster claim to the throne on the York's warden par, so she couldn't really afford to play her hand too much. And also due to the fact that she was a woman, there were less avenues open to her to make things happen then there may have been for a man at that point in history. She was born Margaret Beaufort on by marriage she was known as Margaret delay poll, later Margaret shooter, Margaret staffers on Margaret Stanley. She was born on either the 31st of May, 1441 or 1443. And we think that 1443 is actually the more plausible. Did we know that her birthday was the 31st of May because that's the day that she insisted that Westminster Abbey celebrate her birthday on. And she died on the 29th of June, 1509. She was of course, the mother of Henry the seventh. She was descended from Edward the third, but in a complicated way, as we'll see later, she maneuvered behind the scenes to make her son king night. I don't know that it was always our aim to make her son king, but she definitely needed to keep her son alive and eventually met him king. During his ranch. She had considerable political influence on personal autonomy. And having personal autonomy was very unusual for a woman and her age. She was a translator on a benefactor of education, very much an intellectual. And she established a school for the public to colleges at Cambridge University, Christ's College and 1505 on St. John's College, which was completed posthumous late and 1511. And all the Tudor monarchs were intellectuals. I'm very well-read, and they may owe that to their ancestor, Margaret Beaufort. Lady Margaret Hall, the first Oxford College to admit women is actually named after her. So she's thought of as grit English female intellectual patron of Education. Margaret was the sole heir of John Beaufort, who was Duke of Somerset. He was the legitimised grandson of John of Gaunt, son of Edward the third. The Beaufort Sea are descended from John's mistress, Katherine Swinburne on because they hadn't originally been considered legitimate. There were some legal issues regarding their ability to claim the throne. Lady Margaret was born at black so castle and Bedford. Sure, on either the 31st of May, 1441 or 1443, the latter dead band, considered more likely, as we heard before. The time Dream there for Margaret to be born. Her father was preparing to lead a military expedition in France for Henry the sixth. Somerset obtained confirmation before he left from the King, that **** he die and France, Margaret, lordship and marriage could only be decided by his wife. Somerset was what was known as a tenant and Chief of the crime, and that meant that he owed the king homage for his lands. So under the feudal system, warship of his heirs fell the crime. On his return from France, Somerset was banished from the royal court on charged with treason. He died soon afterwards on records differ on whether he died from an illness or by suicide. Margaret inherited his lands and his claim to the throne, albeit a tenuous one. So even though she's still only a baby, she's quite valuable on the marriage market. Jams and Underwood's influential biography of Margaret reflects that the Bibi Margaret walls upon and the unstable political atmosphere off the Lancastrian court. Margaret's first birthday, Henry the SEC broke his agreement with her father. I met her the award of William delay poll the first week of Suffolk. In real terms, she was still in the custody of her mother who was pregnant at the time, but the child doesn't survive. A Margaret Man Somerset, so air we can't really describe markers as an only child because she had two half-brothers on 3.5 sisters from her mother's first marriage, and she supported them when Henry the seventh was on the throne. Margaret was married to Suffolk son John Della ***, when she was either one or three. Welcome to the medieval world. Now, of course, it wasn't a real marriage. It was very much a paper exercise, and it was really a bike claiming her lands. This marriage was dissolved three years later. And Henry, the sixth award of the warship of Margaret, with her considerable extent to his half-brothers Jasper and Edmund cheater. Margaret was they're married to administrator and refer to him as her first husband. She didn't believe the marriage to delay pole actually content. Henry the sixth arranged this marriage because he wanted to strengthen Edmonds claim to the throne should he be forced to name him as his heir. Admins was the son of Henry's mother, Katherine and Valois, by her marriage to Owen cheater, whom she had married after the death of Henry the Fifth. Nine, Margaret was required to consent to the marriage, and she later said she was divinely guided to do so. Something a byte, Margaret Beaufort, she was someone who had a very strong sense of destiny. Certain works of fiction such as the white queen, She's almost depicted as a bit deranged because of this. But clearly, this belief in her having a special purpose in life got her through some very difficult times and her early life. On the 1st of November 1455, the 12-year-old Margaret Mary, the 24-year-old admin trader. And that is horrifying by modern standards. But when margaret became pregnant soon afterwards, that was actually horrifying by the standards of the day. It was this desire to have an heir to shore up this clam came before the welfare of the young girl. Admin was actually taken prisoner by the forecasts less than a year after their marriage. And on the third of November, 1456, he died of the plague whilst in captivity, a car, Martha. And that left the 13-year-old margaret, a widow and she was pregnant. In 1472. Margaret wrote on her well, that she was to be buried beside admin, so she clearly didn't view him as an abuser. She actually remembered him with respect as the father of her only child, and she believed very much in the destiny of early child. She'd actually had a long and functional marriage to Sir Henry Stafford, who had died in 1471. And yet she wants to be buried besides admin chatter. On the 20th of January, 1457, Margaret gave birth to Henry Tudor at Pembroke castle in the care of jasper Tudor. Young age made the birth very difficult on she may have sustained permanent damage because she'd never had another child, despite two more marriages. She named her son Henry, presumably after Henry the sixth. Her father hub been accused of treason on she very much wanted to show her loyalty. Jasper aim to help secure Henry's future by Mario Margaret to Sir Henry Stafford, who was the second son of Humphrey Stafford, the first Jacob Buckingham. They lived at a place called Working Paula's which Margaret restored. And Buckingham give them land, but it was Margaret lands that were there chief source of income. Jasper Tudor had custody of Henry Tudor though, but the Stafford were able to visit him. Growing up. Henry Tudor didn't live with his mother, but she did occasionally come and visit, so he didn't know her. But the relationship obviously couldn't be what it would've been if she had been allied to raise him. The York AdWord the fourth was made King after the Boatlift titan in 1461. On that changed life a lot for Margaret jasper Tudor flat to France to gather support for the Lancastrian. Edward the fourth gave Henry tutors lands to his own brother, George jig of Clarence. And you can imagine that Margaret was probably not very happy about that, but there wasn't a lot she could do. Henry became the ward of Sir William Hulbert. But again, Margaret was allied to visit him. 1469 work and Clarence, as we know, rebelled against Edward. The fourth market, took the opportunity to try to negotiate the return of Henry's lands title with George. But Edward the fourth was soon restored to par. Henry the sixth was briefly restored in 14701471, but New York is defeated him again at the thoughtless Barnett and returned to par. Margaret then bag to jasper Tudor to take 13-year-old hadn't right, to France with him. He just wasn't safe in England. She did not see her son again for 14 years. Lord staffers having wounded up about lift Barnett fighting for the York side and he died of his wins. So Margaret is weathered again, age 28. Edward of Westminster, who was the son of Henry the sixth, a market Anju, the Lancaster air was killed at cheek spray and 1471. So after the death of Henry the sixth himself, really Henry trader has one of the strongest Lancastrian glimpse. In June 1470, Margaret married Thomas Stanley, Lord High comfortable on King of the Isle of Man. Night. Margaret was a master strategist on this marriage will strategic for her because it meant she could return to Edward the fourths court, play her hands on behalf of her son from there. And she, she added herself at court. Queen Elizabeth were Advil actually made her godmother to one of her daughters. Margaret also served Queen on level, the wife of Richard the third when he took the throne. And she took the opportunity to try to negotiate with Richard the Third, secure her son's return from France. After the disappearance of the princess and the tar, Margaret entered and debt clandestine correspondence with Elizabeth would vote with their mutual physician Louis Carly on passing all messages nor Elizabeth were Advil has lost a lot. She's lost her brother. She's lost her son by her first marriage, Richard Gray, the princes in the tar HER2 sounds by adding the fourth have completely disappeared on our presumably dad. I mean, she has an ax to grind against Richard the Third. And actually other supporters of the highest of York are horrified by the disappearance of the Princess. Margaret strikes while the iron is hot, basically, according to tutor era historian poly door Virgil, Margaret began to hope well of her son's future. At this point, it becomes clear that Henry Tudor realistically could be paying. People are turning against Richard the third night. I don't know if that's the point where she started to think he could be king or maybe all his life. She believed that one day he would became, if you believe her depiction and popular culture. But she had definitely done a good job of keeping him safe, keeping him alive, working on his behalf. And she sees a certain path opening up to them. So of course they plan to depose Richard the Third and replace him with Henry. They also a great betrothed Henry trader with Elizabeth's daughter Elizabeth of York and thought would do, would be unite the highest of York and Lancaster. And that meant that they could gain support from your CAS online cast strands for their coat. Recent times and in popular culture as some have suggested, that Margaret could have been responsible for the deaths of the princes of the tar, because it was of course, a grid it to Henry tutors caused that they weren't starting and his way. But this seems implausible because how could she possibly have gained access to the impregnable fortress of the Tower of London, either herself or someone else after these very well guarded boys. And it's really more in recent times that this has been suggested. There are no contemporary accounts that implicate Margaret. Margaret can be considered the mastermind behind Buckingham's rebellion. My bucking might've entered into this game because he himself wanted to seize the throne. But he joined in Beaufort and windfalls cause and his joining walls are TurningPoint. Henry Tudor wolf to sail from France on, joined his forces with Buckingham's, but unfortunately, he arrived to lead. The jig was beheaded and October for treason and Henry Tudor was forced back to front. So the query was unsuccessful. I was gonna say at this point it was unsuccessful because as we know, Henry Tudor dead end up on the throne. In the end, Richard the third stripped Margaret of her lands titles. I missed it. The fact that she wasn't executed for treason was really done to the fact that she was a woman. Has she been a man? She would have been dab about point. This is Richards attend era of Margaret and parliament, and it is written in what we call Middle English. So they were coming into early modern English around this time. Just to point out that they standardisation of spelling in English didn't hop on until Samuel Johnson's dictionary and 1755, which is why the text looks the way it does. But I digress. For as much as Margaret contests of Richmond, mother to the king's grit, rebel and tread or Henry olive Richmond, half of lip conspired, considered uncommitted, high treason against our sovereign lord the King Richard the Third in diverse on sundry Weiser's. And somebody weighs in a special and sending messages, writings, and tokens to the sad Henry. Also the sub-context mid grievances of grit sums of money and other Xi's squared away for the cars. And also the sad contexts conspired, considered an imagined the destruction of our sad sovereign lord. Other Richard hasn't actually been killed. The fact that she even wanted him dab is trace them. Richard transferred markets property to her husband, lord Stanley, and he was to stop her from communicating with her son, but he failed in doing this. Henry Tudor relied on his mother to gather support for him in England on once he was king, he very much to acknowledge that, knew that he wouldn't have been on the throne with ICT, the work that she did in England on his behalf. Stanley remained distance from the fighting at the Battle of Bosworth failed when Henry Tudor invaded England and took on retro and battle. When the battle was over, it was actually Stanley who plays the crime on his steps on Henry cheaters had Henry the seventh, as he knew, I was midst Donnelly areal of Darby. Some margarines title was not contest of Richmond on Darby. Not a lot of retellings of her story. And when Henry the seventh, a same as the throne and everything she had hoped for chemistry. But actually, she achieved quite a lot during his random did quite a lot of interesting things. She was made a lady of the order of the Garter, the highest order of chivalry. And 1488. She was addressed as my lady, the king's mother, and she was a very powerful figure at court. Henry's first Parliament. He reversed her know Tanja and made her a farm. So almost like a single woman. So she didn't have to hand over her lands and her freedoms to her husband. As most webinar of her day Did, she had the right to own property and to make contracts herself. Margaret as a personality really valued Autonomy and some say her as having fought for autonomy rather than seeking par. Nike has this personal freedom and it must have been amazing for her. Some historians believed she was behind Elizabeth would votes departure from court, but that's actually uncertain. The Spanish envoy petrodollar a alla, commented in 1489 that Henry was much influenced by his mother. He really did listen to her opinions, but she was an intellectual and a very, a living. So there is a sense in which she was a good person to listen to. Margaret accompanied the royal couple when they traveled. Henry wrote in a letter to his mother, I shall be glad to please you as your heart can desire. He really did treat her very well. He was very, very grateful to her and had a great affection for her, which really comes across in his correspondence. Margaret was given the lordship of Edwards Stafford, the magic of Buckingham, and Henry Stafford, the first Earl of wheelchair. Of course, Buckingham's rebellion had led to the death of their father, refused monetary recompense for this, but she gained Buckingham's loyalty to the tutor growing, although that didn't survive beyond her on Henry the seventh lifetimes. She created a protocol for royal births, presumably due to the very difficult birth that she had experienced onto protocol for the upbringing of errors. And she worked with Queen Elizabeth of York to plan the marriages of the royal children. They jointly agreed the betrothal of Prince Arthur, the eldest son of Henry the seventh and Elizabeth of York to Catherine of Aragon. Of course, we know that he died at the age of only 15. And so it was actually his brother, the future Henry the Eighth, who would end up married to Catherine of Aragon on yes, there's a whole story there that we're going to hear later. Margaret work to protect her granddaughter also named Margaret from being married at too young and edge to the King of Scotland, wanting to spare her the suffering she had experienced from a very early marriage. Elizabeth of York died in 1503, and that was heartbreaking for Henry the seventh. He was actually very fond of her. I'm, Margaret became the most powerful woman at court. When Prince Arthur died. Margaret work to ensure that his brother Henry, the future Henry the IV, was raised appropriately to one day take the throne. As I mentioned before, market was an intellectual and a patron of learning, actually passed these interests on to Henry the seventh. On his successors. Margaret supported printing an ordered books and William Paxton and his successor, the first being the French amounts launch ADA. And it sort of reflects the story between Henry the seventh and Elizabeth of New York. She encouraged book production on geography, boats, her own library. She was a translator and was the first name translator of the imitation of Christ and to English. She also translated a French text of the Dutch, the mirror of gold for the sinful. So she both the scope of the general public. And in 1502, she established the Lady Margaret Professorship of divinity at Cambridge University. John's College, Cambridge was founded by her estate and 15 O2 she had died electric ship and definitive at Oxford's Lady Margaret Hall at Oxford was named after her and 1878 and it was the first Oxford College tip met webinar because she was a figure who represented female scholars. She also showed some knowledge of engineering, believe it or not, when she planned and elaborate drainage system when her properties and the fans are threatened by flooding. So she was overall a very bright weapon. Tragically from Margaret. Her son died on the 29th of April, 15099. A lot of the historical figures we've discussed on this course experienced personal tragedy. We've talked already about the terrible things that happen to Elizabeth width VO, but as I was writing the notes for this course and I scribbled on the words. She arranged her son's funeral. I just have to pause at that moment. It was just so awful. Her whole life was about this boy. She had dedicated her life to keeping him safe and she really, really loved him. And I think that the fact that she buried him, that she lived to say that was just the cruelest thing that fit dead to her. Margaret was executor of his wealth and she ensured the smooth succession of her grandson, Henry the Eighth. She arranged her son's funeral and her grandson's car. In addition, the nearly it 10-year-old Henry the eighth, accepted his grandmother suggestions for Privy Council members, so she actually influenced the beginning of his reign. Margaret died only a couple of months after her son, on the 29th of June, 1509 up the dean array of Westminster Abbey. And that was the day after Henry the eighth, 18th birthday. The effigy on her tomb is probably sculpted from a death mask, so it is a realistic depiction of her. And she's shown as a widow and prayer. And you can see her tomb pictured here. It's actually in Westminster Abbey, very close to the tomb of Mary Queen of Scots. And if you're ever in Westminster Abbey, I hope you'll think of giving a respectful nod to this great lyric. Her support of the church on universities as inscribed on her team. She's buried and the Henry the seventh chapel at Westminster Abbey. This was what was sad about Margaret at her funeral service and 1509 by John Fisher who conducted the service. She was bounteous and liberal to every person of her knowledge or coenzymes, avarice and covetousness she most hated and sorrow that film much in all persons, but especially in anti that belonged onto her. She was a singular easiness to be spoken on, to unfold cardiac answer she would make to all that Kim onto her of marvelous gentleness. She was onto all folks, but especially under her own, whom she trusted and loved right, tangibly unkind. She would not be onto know creature nor forgetful with Annie kindness or service done to her before, which is no little part very noble list. She was not vengeful nor cruel, but Ready anyone to forget and forgive Andres done to her at the lace desire or motion made onto her for the same merciful also, Petraeus she was meeting, she was pious, such as was received on wrongfully traveled onto them that were in poverty and sickness or any other misery associates described here as kind, gentle, and loving. But I think history remembers her as bang Schroeder and clever as well. 31. Henry VII : Henry Tudor or Henry the seventh. No, we know that he defeated Richard the Third at the Battle of Bosworth Field, I became King of England. But what did he do after that? Well, the guys at Horrible Histories have this joke that Shakespeare wrote, Henry the fourth, Henry the Fifth, Henry the sixth, and Henry the Eighth and left Henry the seventh because he was the boring one, I would argue. And the story that you're a bite to here, that some points of his life actually had a little bit too much excitement for one individual going on. So let's here. Hi, Henry Tudor, belt the cheater devastate and high. He really did change life and England after the Wars of the Roses, Henry Tudor lived from the 20th of January, 1457 until the 21st of April, 1509. And as we know, he was the first monarch of the house of Cheater. And he had the rather difficult task of restoring the PAR and stability of the English monarchy after the Wars of the Roses. He also successfully boasted the economy by boosting the wool trade, by holding a standoff with the low countries, which we're going to hear about it. He also introduced a lot of new taxes, add an effective system for gathering them. But unfortunately, the new system was full of appendices, which came to light and an investigation after Henry the seventh had died. And he ran for a rod 21 years. Henry was born at Pembroke castle on the 28th of January, 1457, to the 13-year-old widowed Margaret Beaufort, who was contests of Richmond. His father Edmund shooter, had died three months earlier and captivity because he'd been fighting the orchestra and he died of plague. His grandfather, Owen Tudor, had bene pitch at the court of Henry the Fifth, who rose to become a squire after military service at the Battle of Agincourt. And after the death of Henry the Fifth, the Queen Catherine de Valois married Owen chitter. They had two sons together, Edmond and Jasper. Admin, of course bad Henry, Twitter's father. Henry's mother was also descended from Edward the third. We had the fact that his father was half-brother to the king, and that his mother had a Lancaster Klimt, albeit a tenuous one going for him. Margaret was descended from Edward the third via John of Gaunt, who was Edward the third son, bought through a legitimate line through Catherine swim for two. John, Mistress. This line was legitimised by Richard the Second, and also by Henry the fourth, the legitimate son of John of Gaunt. But Henry the fourth myth is proviso that this particular line, the Beaufort, could never claim the throne. Other, there was some arguments about whether or not he legally had the right to do that. So henry Tudor inherits a claim to the throne, but it's a very tenuous one. The Portuguese and Castilian Rowe highs and actually had a stronger claim to the throne of England because they were descended from Catherine of Lancaster, who was John if God's legitimate daughter by his second wife, constants of Castile. Henry mid use of the cheater connection to Wales, and that helps him to garner support. It came from an old Welsh family, which was purportedly decided from the seventh century can cut Walder. Henry occasionally displayed Cadwell letters, emblem of the red dragon. And he did the after the Battle of Bosworth failed actually, or his victory March through London. He displayed that along with the insignia of Saint George, the patron saint of England. Really begging up the fact that he had Welsh support and his victory. After the death of admin shooter jasper Tudor, a grade to protect Margaret on her child at Pembroke Castle. When ad with a fourth took the throne, the castle on the heirloom of Pembroke were given to his follower William Herbert, who then became the legal guardian of Margaret and Henry. Henry lived with the Harvards until 1469, when the Earl of Warwick joined the Lancastrian side and executed William Herbert. That must have been very traumatic. The young Henry Actually, Warwick restored Henry the Eighth and 147 day to the throne. Jasper Tudor was able to return from exile. He brought Henry to court. At this point, Edward the fourth regaining the throne in 1471. And Manet Lancastrian, including Henry Tudor flat to Britain. They, as a result, he stayed there for the next 14 years under the protection of France as the Second who was Jacob Britney, Francis fell ill and 1476 and his advisers were quite amicable terms with AdWord. The fourth, they handled Henry over to AdWords and boys. And he was going to be sent home via the port of sound mellow. But he fans stomach pins a managed to delay the departure until the tides it turns on my couldn't sail. The news that arrived that France has had recovered from his illness. And henry went on clamped sanctuary and among those stray, so he escapes the clutches of Edward the fourth, 51483, Margaret Stanley, because his mother, Margaret Beaufort, bed Margaret shooter. We've heard all this before, but she's not married to the orchestra, Lord Stanley. And she was promoting Henry's cause behind the scenes. And England presented him as a viable replacement for Richard the Third. On Christmas day, 1483, ran cathedral Henry pledge to Mary Elizabeth of York, because her brothers had disappeared from the tar. And Elizabeth was Edward the fourths air. And such a marriage would unite the highest of York, unlike Astor, and might lead to some healing of the wounds caused by the Wars of the Roses. Francis the second gave Henry money on supplies to invade England. But the coup failed, as we know, because Henry basically didn't arrive on time and his co-conspirator, the Jacob Buckingham, was captured and executed. Richard the Third was supported by Francis a seconds Prime Minister Pierre laundry. And he tried to have Henry extradited to England, but Henry skipped to France. The French actually give him trips and arms for another invasion of England. He had gained the support of the word vowels. By this time. He sailed with a small French and Scottish force and landed at Mill Bay and Pembrokeshire. And it was symbolically important that he began the whole thing. And Wales, the family home of the traders. He marched to England with jasper Tudor, John Rivera, who was the 13th Earl of Oxford. And all the way they gathered about five to 6 thousand soldiers. We think that Richard had about 8 thousand, so it's still a smaller force on, of course, henry wasn't really expected to win this one, not by Richard anyway, Richard had reinforcements and Nottingham and Lester Henry plan to engage retro to personally I'm quickly, it was his plan to kill Richard the third, just as it was Richard plan to kill Henry and add the whole thing quickly. As we know, decisively won the Battle of Bosworth Field, killing Richard and ending the Wars of the Roses. Not very major turning point in English history. You'd be tempted to say they all lived happily ever afterwards, but of course they didn't. And a lot needed to be done. Devastation have been caused by this ongoing civil war. Henry declared himself King by right of conquest, retroactively from the 21st of August, the day before the battle. And that meant that he could accuse people who had fought against him of treason. And you can basically confiscate their lands and properties, meaning that he could actually take the land and property of Richard the third. Henry spared Richards nephew and lambda are though John Della poll, they are little Lincoln who was the son of Richard sister Elizabeth. He also met George plantar gene, that's daughter Margaret conscious of Salzburg. Direct meaning in her own right. So she's not contests because she's married to someone. She is in herself a contest and that showed quite a lot of mercy and wanting to heal the wounds. Although Henry threw his ran how to kind of paranoia about anyone who is related to the plantar. Janet's seeking to take his throne. And he does face a lot of pretenders, as we'll see later. How did he was crying at Westminster Abbey on the 30th of October, 1495. And he very carefully did not someone Parliament until after his coronation. After his coronation, Henry issued an edict reversing previous attenders of people who've been accused of treason against Richard the Third, and give people the right to security of their own person on their property if they swore fealty to him. Henry karyotype has pledged to Mary Elizabeth of York. And so united the prices of York and Lancaster as plants. They were actually third cousins, as they were both descended from John of Gaunt. It seems to have been a very successful marriage. I was the ultimate political marriage mean politically, it was saving to do. But it's so happened as childs would have it that they actually got on and Henry was actually completely devastated. Whenever Elizabeth died, some years later, Henry hard Parliament repealed the touchless ridges, which had declared at what the fourths marriage and valid and his children illegitimate and thus hate legitimised Elizabeth of York, again, there was less political advantage to be made from being married to someone who wasn't considered legally legitimate. Henry secured and strength of the crowd by undermining, dividing the nobility. Basically at that point, the nobility could hire people known as retainers who are extensively servants, but you could have hundreds or thousands of them and they would basically give you a private army that could challenge the king and handwrite couldn't have that. They had a thing called liberate. The lords gave phase retainers budgets and ambulance. Henry basically quite loud that and that gave them the ability a lot less par, right from the beginning of his ran Henry to try to prevent rebellions. He arrested the 10-year-old AdWords olive Warwick, who was the son of ad with the fourths brother George Duke of clients and put him in the tar of London. Over the next 12 years, there were several rebellions. May not everybody just instantly accepted a cheater king. The first rebellion was in 1486, and that was led by the Stafford brothers and is known as the Stafford and level rebellion. But it collapsed with ICT any fighting and wasn't really a serious threat. 1487 York guests who were led by the outlived Lincoln rebelled and supportive Lambert symbol, whom they claimed was AdWord of work. But of course, we know the real AdWord of work was living in the Tower of London, was basically a prisoner. The rebellion began in Ireland, whether an ability had historically supported the House of York. And it was had it there by Gerald Fitzgerald, the ith of Kildare. He proclaimed signal as king and provide a trips for an invasion of England. The rebellion was defeated and Lincoln was killed at the Battle of stoke. Henry pardoned the Irish nobles on med symbol at Survey Boy the kitchen, where it was his job to turn the mate of the split because of course he knew for sure that this boy wasn't at work of work. But there was a more serious threat to come from a pretender known as Parkin war back in 1490 day. And he claimed debate Richard of Shrewsbury, the younger of the princess and the tar. And I walked, met him. A serious threat was that he was supported by AdWord, the fourth sister. The boys aren't. Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy. We're back and tap to, to advance ed Ireland and 1491 on England in 1495. And he persuaded James the fourth of Scotland to invade England in 1496. War back landed in Cornwall and 1497, and was soon after captured and executed because Henry really had to put that one dime. That one really was a serious threat. Henry the seventh actually find support for war back within his own household. When he ordered a search of the property of William Stanley. He was chamberlain of the high, told, basically in charge of running Henry the seventh household. And he was fine to have a bag containing ten thighs and pints on your cast liberate. And so he was executed. Henry strengthened his security after that and it became much more difficult to access the king and parson. 1499, Henry happy Oliver, executed, although he spared his sister Margaret to the conscious of souls. She was executed much later in 1541 by Henry the IV. Edwards story, Bishop of Chichester kept register, which provides us with an interesting insight into the economic dealings of Henry the seventh, described by the 19th century historian, our WAR Stevens, as affording some illustrations of the avaricious and parsimonious character of the king. He's great ART's tight. Basically. Henry extracted money from his subjects to fund campaigns in France and Scotland, although the money actually went into his own personal fortune. Nevertheless, despite his lack of experience and all things economic, because unlike Kinsey had preceded him, he'd never had any training and economics. He managed to replenish the Exchequer. He maintain stability as well by keeping the same financial advisors through ITS ran. And he only had two treasurers through artist 21-year ran, Baran dynam and the Earl of sorry. He improved the means of collecting taxes. And his chancellor, archbishop John Morton, created what's called Morton's fork, which meant that the nobles who didn't spend very much must have enough savings lying around to pay taxes. Nobles that spent a lot, Well, they could afford to pay taxes. You were ****** if he didn't, ****** if he didn't. Basically, there were of course a basis of the system. And those worked really investigated during Henry's lifetime, but came to light and a commission after his death I were added by Henry the Eighth. Henry the eighth executed the two most headed tax collectors, Richard absolute and add the deadly on spurious charges of treason. Henry the seventh established upon the standard of wet and it became part of the imperial system eventually, which is still in use and England today, other kilograms and into the metric system is used as well. Henry's foreign policy was to secure peace and economic prosperity. And he was fairly successful in doing this. And the tricky of Red Dawn signed in 1489. Henry said 6 thousand trips to prevent France from annexing written a, Henry started a policy to recover GAN and other laws, plant alginate territory's and France. Henry letter to negotiate a treaty, a tablet and sharing the French would not support pretenders to the English throne, such as Parkin, we're back. It also brought in money for England. Despite this, henry decided to keep Brittany ITO French control, invaded Brittany. And 1892, he said 6 thousand trips to France, signed an agreement with a Spanish agreeing to prevent French annexation of Britney. France. I ever was becoming more interested in the Italian Wars and less interested in Britney, a grade to the Treaty of a tablet. But just a kiss. Henry subsidized shipbuilding to strike from the nearly any commissions. Europe's first ever dry dock up Portsmouth and 1495, which is currently the oldest dry dock. And the world. Henry the South was one of the first European monarchs to appreciate the importance of the newly united spin. And so he married his son Arthur to Catherine of Aragon. We know that there's a story there waiting to happen. He agreed the first trade date between England and Scotland and 200 years the Treaty of perpetual pace. And he drove his daughter Margaret tutor to James the fourth of Scotland as part of this hoping to break the ILD alliance between Scotland and France, although that didn't happen during his ran, the marriage eventually united England and Scotland as it happened under Margaret script grabs on James the sixth of Scotland and the First of England. Henry forms an alliance with the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian. He persuaded Pope Innocent the Ith to excommunicate all pretenders to Henry's thrown because he had a little bit of a paranoia about that. As we know, 1506 Henry became patrons, are protector of the order of the night hospital or at the request of its grandmaster. Mit dem was sort of pro crusading at this point. In his correspondence with Pope Julius the second, 1509, Henry encouraged him to establish pace and Christian rounds and organize an expedition against the Turks of the Ottoman Empire. Let's talk about his economic policy and all these things really did make a difference to people's lives on the ground. Henry the seventh belt, a fortunate by trading alum and Allen was used as a chemical fixative for dyeing fabrics, including wool. And the world trade was very important to England's finances. It was actually a rare commodity. And in Europe it was only in the area of Atlanta, which was under the Pope's control. So as I said, the English economy was heavily dependent on the World Trade. Henry licensed tread chips and acquired alum from the Ottoman Empire, which he sold to the low countries. And in England. This basically broke the Pope's monopoly on alum and admit the price of a paper which didn't make him very popular with the Pope. Henry embargo trade, especially the world trade with bargain day, well Burgundian, Netherlands. In retaliation for market of Burgundy, support of Parkin, war back on this began a bit of a trade war. They merchants, adventurers who were the company who had a monopoly on Flemish world, then relocated from Antwerp to colleagues and flourish merchants were kicked out of England in the ad this was benefiting. No one. Henry addressed the reduction and commerce on both sides of the dispute with a madness and precursors, the grid agreement of 1496 removed taxation for English merchants and med, England richer basically 1506, fill up the handsome he was Jacob park and j was shipwrecked and England. And while he was there, he was basically forced into agreeing to trading terms which were very, very beneficial to England at the expense of the Netherlands and France. This agreement was actually called the malice endocarditis, the evil agreement. France, burgundy, the Holy Roman Empire and span, all rejected this trade deal. And Philip died shortly after it was negotiated. Now, another area in which Henry mid great differences was law and order because he really needed to stabilize England after the Wars of the Roses. Nobles could raise private armies, as we've heard from that retainers. And so he outlawed liberate. That couldn't be done. Another thing he did was he created a console of whales on the marches for his son Arthur Prince of Wales. And it was to cover whales, the marches, Cornwall and Cheshire. Henry alive nobles to retain their interests and their own regions if they followed the law and they were loyal to him. Example, bang the Stanley's and Lancashire, Cheshire. On the other hand, he curtailed the par of nobles firstly from bonding level rate, but also through a system of bonds and recognize, which we're gonna talk about a little bit. Later. He used these laws to find individuals whom he saw as threats. He dealt with threats to royal authority using the Court of star chamber. And it was comprised of the most trusted privy council members and common law judges. And it sat at the Palace of Westminster. And it can basically bypass or cut through laborious legal process. And because of that, well, it can be viewed historically as a little bit to run a nationally Henry use justices of the pace at HR had one Justice of the peace. They served for a year at a time. And their parts on numbers and crazy, especially under Henry. But during the tutor period, generally, Henry control their power and influence and didn't allow them to become too powerful using the same method that he had for the nobles. Bones on recognizance. Bond was a written contract requiring a person to carry out a specific task or their good behavior was required by the bond. Record. Missense was a formal acknowledgement of debts or obligations that were owed to the crime. All acts of Parliament were overseen by a justice of the pace, meaning that they were responsible for actually making sure that these laws made by Parliament where an octet, for example, there was a law saying, you couldn't allow juries to become corrupt. And so the justices of the peace kicked IT. Jury members that they thought might be corrupt, for example. They also did things like they checked widths and measures to make sure there was no cheating going on. By 1509, they were the chief law enforces in the country and they were unpaid. The law and order bill was not very big. And that was because the local gentry saw the rule as having prestige and then floods. And so they were willing to serve with ICT being paid, Erase personal life, some very sad things where a bite to happen. In 1502 prints Arthur died at loved low castle from English sweating sickness, which was a respiratory disease that was common. At the time. Henry Duke of York became heir apparent, he would let her become Henry the IV. Usually quite emotionally restrained and not given to show some emotion. Henry surprised his courtiers with public sobbing. His beloved queen Elizabeth died the following year and Henry completely shut himself away for days, refusing to speak to anybody. And that was followed by a period of intense grief. Henry wanted to maintain his alliance with span though. And so he asked for papal dispensation for his son Henry, to marry Arthur's widow, Catherine of Aragon. The church would not normally have permitted such a marriage. Henry the seventh had second thoughts about it though, as Isabella the first of Castile, had been succeeded by Catherine, sister Joanna. So Catherine was not a daughter of only one reigning monarch, not too. And he didn't think she was quite good enough to be the wife of his heir. This marriage took place after Henry the seventh death, the future King, Henry the eighth at the time, but the papal dispensation came through. It was actually too young to give consent. You have to be 14 to do that. Henry the seventh considered marrying again, and it's considered slightly unusual that he didn't. He's also one of the only English kings. There's only a handful of them who never had a mistress. And when he sent a description of his ideal wife around Europe, the description was very clearly of Elizabeth of York, and that really suggests that she was the love of his life. After 1503, the Tower of London was never again used as a royal residence at clearly had some bad memories. The nobility criticized Henry for centralizing administration and London. Henry was frugal, but he spent extravagantly on his wife and children, and that really shows his affection for them. For example, in 14918, bought a very expensive loops for his daughter Mary. And he bought a lion for Elizabeth's menagerie. Imagine that darling, Can I have a lion? I really want to lie on like yeah, you know what I mean? After Elizabeth Staff, Henry became very ill himself and the only person that he would say whilst his mother and he nearly died at that point is actually another sadness was to befall him when he escorted his elder daughter Margaret to the Scottish border to marry James the fourth, he would basically never see her again. She wrote to tell him high homesick she walls, but there was nothing he could do. He couldn't bring her home without breaking the first treaty that had been made in Scotland and 200 years. So that was a source of personal sadness as well. Henry the Suffolk died at Richmond palace on the 21st of it, both 1509, and he's buried next to Elizabeth of York at the Henry the seventh Chapel, which he commissioned in Westminster Abbey. His mother died only two months later, and he was smoothly succeeded by his son, the infamous Henry the Eighth. 32. Henry VIII Part 1 : One of England's most notorious monarchs. He's of course remembered for that little rhyme. Divorced beheaded died, divorced beheaded survived, which describes the fits of his six wives. He's famous of course for having how it's six wives, but also for having appointed himself head of the Church of England and changing the state religion, which had a lot of repercussions to society generally, especially when he dissolved the monasteries, which made him a lot of money. And was also one of the greatest acts of cultural vandalism, well, pretty much ever. And we're going to hear a bit more about that later. He did some other things as well. He introduced to the Constitution the idea of the divine right of kings. So God himself had preordained the monarch. To oppose the monarch was not only to make yourself a treasure it, but also a heretic. As we mentioned, he made lots of money from the dissolution of the monasteries. And he spent a large part of this on wars against France and Scotland. And on occasions the Holy Roman Emperor, which we're pretty much on successful. These costs so much that By the time he died, he left the country bankrupt. He also oversaw the union of England and Wales and was the first English ruler to be named as king of Ireland and the crown of Ireland Act 1540 to one thing that people often don't realize about Henry the eighth, which was like other Tudor monarchs. He was very well-educated on illiterate. But because he was a bit capricious, we sometimes miss that. And he thought of himself as an author and a composer, and he claimed to have written that very famous tune, Greensleeves. Whether he did or not, we just don't know. Henry was born on the 28th of June, 1491. On he lived until the 28th of January 1547. And he actually died on what would have been his father's 90th birthday. Little fact there. He ran from the 22nd of April, 1509 until his death. He was born on the policy of plants and in Greenwich and Kent. He was actually the third child on the second sum of Henry the seventh on Elizabeth of York. Only four of them are seven or eight children survived infancy. His elder brother Arthur was the heir apparent when Henry was born at balsam to expected that he would become king. At that point. He was baptized by Richard Fox, who was the Bishop of extra. Unlike most European royals at the time, he was born into the Catholic church. Age two, he was appointed Constable of Dover castle and Lord warden all the sink ports. Age three. He was made are all marshal of England, lord left-hand end of Ireland. He also became unlike the bath, he was created Duke of York a month later. And to this day, the second son of a monarch has the tight logic of York as I record this prints Andre is the current Duke of York. He was later mid warden of the Scottish marches in 1495. He was made a member of the Order of the Garter, the highest order of chivalry. Why on earth is King Henry the seventh giving all these grandiose titles to mirror infant. Well, these titles have lucrative positions attached to them by giving them to his tiny son Henry the seventh, with tanned control of the revenue that was associated with these titles and also stopped it from getting into the hands of the powerful nobles that he was trying to curtail. Henry was educated by respected academics and he was fluent in English and Latin, and he also learned Italian. In 1501, Henry was part of the celebrations when his brother Arthur married Catherine of Aragon. Now she was the daughter of Ferdinand the second and Oregon and Queen Isabella The first off Castiel. So it was a very important strategic alliance for England. Only 20 weeks Lyft are though, and 15 OT Arthur died aged only 15. 10-year-old handwrite became Prince of Wales, Duke of Cornwall, our love Chester, heir apparent. Other, Henry the seventh gave him few actual responsibilities and he didn't have a public road when he became king. Only seven years later, he hadn't really been prepared to row both Henry the seventh, Isabella, the first of Castillo, where came to keep their alliance going by Marianne, Catherine to hand-write. They were betrothed in 1503. I'm a papal dispensation was sought for the marriage because Catherine hobby, married to Henry's brothers. So that was calling snug where the date and the eyes of the church, Catherine claimed that her marriage to either have never been consummated though. Isabella died and 1504 on there was a succession crisis. I'm, they've seen that succession crisis lead to complete and stability and account entry. As well as this, Henry, the seventh relationship with Ferdinand was deteriorating. He started to CU off on the idea of the marriage that left Catherine and limbo not knowing what was happening, especially when Henry turned 14, which was the legal age that he needed to bait to consent to the marriage. He declined to marry Catherine. Ferdinand's made her Has Ambassador to England though, so she could stay there. And definitely, I'm Catherine believed in her heart of hearts, that it was God's will that she, Mary henry, even though he didn't want to marry her. I've got point. She saw it as her destiny to become his wife on Queen of England. Henry the seventh died on the 21st of April, 1509. The 17-year-old Henry the eighth took the throne. After his father's funeral, Henry suddenly decided that actually he did want to marry Catherine. There were a few things going against her at this point. Part of her Dari had been lost. There was the need for papal dispensation. Henry clamp, that had been his father's dying wish that he married Catherine, though not the same as quite frankly, unlikely because we know that Henry the seventh had cooled off on the idea. We don't know what the truth of that walls. Henry the eighth rejected attempts by Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian the first to patrol with Henry to his grand daughter Eleanor. Henry, I'm Catherine, were married in a quite low case ceremony at the friars church and Greenwich on the 11th of June 1509. Catherine was at that time in 23. Henry and Catherine were crowned on the 24th of June, 1509 at Westminster Abbey. I'm that was anything but locate. It was a quite lavish ceremony and it was followed by a grand banquet. Catherine wrote her father that our time is spent and continuous festival. Only two days later in order to distance himself from his father's regime, Henry, arrest of his father's most unpopular ministers, some tax collectors, richard absent, admin, deadly. They were executed for high trays and 15 tag, which was pretty much a trumped up charge as far as we can tell. Execution oxygen became Henry's modus operandi for dealing with potential political threats. Henry dead return the money that had purportedly being extorted by the deceased ministers. Another area in which Henry differed from his father was that he was much more lenient with the highest of York. He pardoned Thomas Gray. The second Mark was a Dorset, who was the grandson of Elizabeth word felt by one of her sons from her first marriage before she married Edward the fourth, he did execute admin delay poll, who was descended from Elizabeth, the sister of Edward the fourth on Richard the Third. That was because admins brother Richard had cited against the king right from the start of his row. We can say that if you oppose hadn't right or annoy Henry, death as a likely consequences. Catherine of Aragon experienced a lot of tragedy and the whole area of childbirth. And of course, having an air was very, very important to Henry. He was only the second king of the cheater devastate and it was very important, but the man be carried on. Catherine gave birth to his stillborn daughter on the 31st of January 15 tab. Then she conceived again for a month later on, on the 1st of January 1511, she gives birth to a son named Henry. Here was long for air on celebrations broke out, but sadly, the child died only seven weeks later. Catherine hump to more stillborn sons and 15131515. So stillbirth on infant mortality were much more common at this period in history than they are now, but no less devastating. In February 1516, Catherine gave birth to marry the future Queen Mary the first. And up until that point, her marriage had been a bit strand, but it improved after Mary was born. Henry was by no means faithful to Catherine. However, he had several mistresses and cleaning on Hastings, who was sister of the jig of Buckingham and the conscious of Huntington. This lady, Elizabeth, also known as bassy blogged. That relationship actually lasted for three years. 1518, Catherine hot, another stillborn daughter, June, 1519. Loads gave birth to, hadn't raised a legitimate son, Henry Fitzroy. Fitzroy as an son of the king. He was immediately magic of Richmond and that was significant and not Margaret Beaufort, who was handler, his grandmother, of course, hopping context of Richmond. So it was a family title. Some people saw this as evidence that Henry plan to legitimize his son. Henry Fitzroy sadly died in 1536, aged only 17, an artefact time, parliament was considering the second Succession Act, which could have a light him to succeed. His father is king. Let's talk a little bit about Henry's relationships with the rest of Europe. In 1510, Henry renewed his father's good relationship with Louis the 12th of fronts. Not divided, has canceled. At that point, France, along with the Holy Roman Empire, was winning a war against Venice. Henry basically decided to hedge his bats. He signed a pact with Ferdinand the second is Aragon. After Pope Julius the sixth created the holy lake, which was anti-French. And 1511, Henry joined the leg, even though France was technically supposed to be his allied. He basically wanted to rule France and he thought he would start by. Reclaiming aqua tin, which had originally been on English territory, and he planned an Anglo Spanish attack for spring 1511. There was a formal declaration of war and April 1512, but they attack when it happened, it was a dismal failure. Ferdinand used it to further his own ends on the alliance survived on the French were pushed ICT of ethylene. At this point, Henry convinced Emperor Maximilian. Fraud says allied to join the holy leg. And the Pope promised Henry the title of most Christian king of France at this point. I'm possibly a coronation by the Pope himself, which would've been a real public relations coup for Henry, which would happen in Paris if Louis the 12th walls to the 30th of June 15th, 13, Henry and vetted France and his trips were victorious at the relatively minor bottle of spars. The English then to give it to Maximilian, they then conquered turned I, Henry lab, the army personally at this point with a large entourage, not Henry and his youth was athletic. He was a good rider. He was a striking figure of a man. This was not the case in his later life, but he would've been on inspiring figure to look up on horseback on a relatively engaging military leader. Luis request. Jim's the fourth of Scotland, who was married to Henry's sister, invaded England while he was away, overseeing by Queen Catherine, the English to f8 at the Scotts at the Battle of flooding on the ninth of September 1513, James the fourth was killed. That, and the hostilities with Scotland at that point. Not Henry ran out of money as he had been financially supporting Ferdinand's maximilian. So he decided not to pursue a 1514 campaign. A new Pope, Leo the 10th came to par, and Henry decided to pursue peace with France. That was basically time to call it a day. Henry signed a trait day with Louis, promising his sister Mary tutor and marriage to Louis. Piece was secured for eight years and that was considered quite a long time. At that point in history. Catherine's nephew, Charles the fifth, became very powerful in Europe when he became king of span and 1514, and then he became Holy Roman Emperor. And fifth, 19 loony the 12th, was succeeded by his cousin Francis the first 1515. The magnets of Europe are all really quite young at that point in history. Cardinal Thomas Jose negotiated the trait in 1518, which n, to unite Western Europe against the Ottoman Empire. Henry met with Francis the first near QALY at the field of the cloth of gold on the seventh of June, 1520. And that was followed by a fortnight of entertainment. It all sounds like fun button so happened that they didn't really get all. There was an atmosphere of competition between them. Henry actually go on better with Charles who declared war on France and 1521, Henry offered to immediate, but in the end he sided with Charles. Henry still wanted England's historical territories in France, but he also wanted an alliance with bargained date, which was under Charles's control. So it seemed like the best move for him. And English at TACC and the north of France ended up achieving very little bow. Although Charles went on to capture promises. But he didn't really feel that he owed anything to handwrite and the success. And Henry tick this a bit personally antique England, height of the war, signing a trade date on the 30th of August 15th, 25. Divorced beheaded died. Divorced beheaded survived. Let's talk about Henry's infamous marriages, beginning with his first marriage to Catherine of Aragon. A little bit about the ending of the marriage between Catherine of Aragon and Henry the Eighth. Henry had an affair with Catherine's Lydian, we're doing Mary Berlin. And it's thought that he fathered her children, Henry and Catherine carry either. He never really formerly acknowledged them. Henry then fell in love with Mary's quite charismatic 25-year-old sister Anne Boleyn, 1523, at a time when he was starting to resent Catherine's lack of production of a male heir. Refused his advances, would not become his mistress. As her sister has done, she has no interest in being a royal mistress. I may have three options for resolving what he was starting to call his grit matter, which is basically his lack of an air succession crisis causing instability and a country and not wanting to see an end to the tutor at devastate bang thoughts very much on his mind. His first option was to make Henry Fitzroy, his illegitimate son, legitimate. That would mean appealing to the Pope though, and it could be challenged. His second option was to marry his daughter Mary off and hope she produced a grandson as though he might die and leave the throne open before this could happen. The third option was the weld that he happened to prefer and that world regular light of his marriage to Catherine, some high And find a new wife of childbearing age, preferably on the limb. 34-year-old hand. Definitely wanted to go with option three. At that time, Catherine was 40 years old. Henry had carried the title of today's defense or defender of the faith. And actually the British monarchy retained that title to this day. I'm not happened after the 21 publication of his work, assert TO septum Sacramento, or of the defense of the seven sacraments, one of which ironically is marriage. Of course. That point he could be viewed as an educated on Divide Catholic. And he actually defend that papal supremacy. And this work by 1527, he seemed to be of the view that conference lack of male issue was a punishment from God. And given that Catherine herself was red lights up, I've actually been quite hurtful that she's been accused of doing something wrong. He find a verse in the Bible, it's Bach himself up, which was Leviticus 2021, which says, If a man marries his brother's wife, it is an octave impurity. He has dishonored his brother, they will be shirtless. My arguably, Henry the eighth did not marry his brother's wife. He married his brother's widow, and that marriage had been unconcentrated, according to Kathryn Annie Hi, Thomas Cranmer used this biblical texts to declare the marriage null. Martin Luther though, that the Protestant reformers argued against the annulment saying that the Bible didn't endorse divorce. Henry then went to poke them seventh, 1527, hoping to have his marriage annulled. No dice. This was a very public humiliation of Catherine, who had been his wife for a rind 20 years. He had helped win a war. And Scotland, who was popular with the public, who had performed her GETs well noisy as being personally humiliated. She was unlikely to simulate retire off to a convent, which is what Henry would have liked her to have done. Henry sent his secretary william night with a draft paper, bu, what's used, the indirect freezing. But the Pope of course Saul threat and didn't grant Henry has an ultimate crazy Astor Court was then convened in England with a representative from climb at the seventh. Although his leg, it, Lorenzo compare GO, wasn't no way empire to decide in Henry's favorite wasn't going to happen. That might have been due to intervention by Charles the fifth. Catherine's nephew, whom we've seen was very powerful in Europe. Henry is taking all the conflict chart. She's taking on some of the most powerful royal houses in Europe. He is distancing England from the rest of Europe by continuing this auction. After less than two months, the Pope called the KS back to Rome and July 1529, and that was over 20 years after Henry and Catherine had originally married. As a result of the failure to obtain an element cartilage, Jose fell from grass, was charged with the preliminary and October 15th, 29. I'm not meant placing another part, and this case, the Pope above the king. He briefly reconciled with Henry, but was eventually charged with treason and November 15th, 30, and he died whilst awaiting trial. Things do not go well for you. If you don't give Henry what he wants to basically, Thomas Moore became hand raised Lord Chancellor at that point. He was very competent and capable, but he was also a staunch Catholic and he opposed the moment Katharine was banished from court on her rooms were given to ambulate at this point, which must have been incredibly hurtful. Was well-read and well-informed on she was very interested in the protestant reforms, but we don't entirely know what her own personal religious views where Thomas Cranmer was appointed as Archbishop of Canterbury. At that point, when the previous incumbent, William Warum died, he was viewed as a supporter of the weldment other, the pope actually approved the appointment when Catherine on Henry's marriage finally ended. They have been married for 24 years. On Cromer declared the marriage null and void. Especially conveyed court on the 23rd of May 15th, 33, that also greatly reduced the role of Princess Mary as well. Make way for Henry second wife on Berlin. When to 1532. Fronts is the first GIF, French support for Henry's new marriage when kings met a callee. So he's not completely cut off from the whole of Europe. On the 41 year old hand raise secretly might the 30 or 31-year-old on on returning to Dover other after she became pregnant, there was a second public service in London on the 25th of January, 1533. On the 28th of May 15th, 33, Cromer declared Henry and adds marriage valid. Catherine was stripped of the title of queen on became Princess Di Voyager because she was Arthur's widow, was crammed on the 1st of June 15th, 33, and on the seventh of September, 1533, she gives birth slightly early to a daughter, Elizabeth, who was named after Henry's mother, Elizabeth of York, who had one day, despite all this, Pylab are trying to have a sudden become one of the greatest monarchs that England would ever know. Elizabeth the First. The marriage necessitated a brick with a Roman Catholic Church. The English Reformation parliament sat from the third of November 1529 to the 14th of April 15th, 36, passing the legislation that broke with Rome and establish the Church of England of which handwrite would be had. Kromer on others have adopted the common law with the parliaments ox being advanced by Thomas Crown weld Thomas oddly on the Duke of Norfolk, as well as by hand, right? Thomas More resigned and was replaced by Thomas Cromwell in 1537. Mary was declared illegitimate by the act of succession, Nawab to be declared a legitimate by your father. Taking all the political resonances out of it. He's winning know parents of the Year Awards their children were to take precedent over Mary and the line of succession. 1534, the act of supremacy at knowledge, the king as the head of the Church of England, the pope no longer has any power over what he does. The 1880s to act and restraint of Appeals abolished the right of appeal to Rome. So Henry VIII, top ecclesiastical power. Pope Clement the seventh excommunicated Henry and Cromer. Well, that we could definitely have seen coming. He had gone to so much trouble to secure this marriage, but Henry and ans marriage was occ not a delicate, tall and was spirited, unintelligent, unwell. Rad I'm not had appealed to handwrite as a lover, but as acquaintance, she was expected to be submissive to him and she didn't have that kind of personality. Her independence on a strong opinions not only alienated Henry, but they also made her animators at court. Henry also resented ons temper. Of course, he also had a temporary, they turned out to be a bit of a personality conflict. How to false pregnancy or a miscarriage. And 1534, which Henry seem to take personally, I saw her lack of producing a son as a betrayal because he'd done all this to have a male heir. At Christmas 1534, Henry had a discussion with Chrome on Chrome or about high. He could basically get rid of them without returning to Catherine. Henry had an affair at that time with either MOD Shelton or her sister. Mary. Henry picked on religious dissent decisively around that time, executing the first car through asean martyrs who were amongst, refused to acknowledge him as head of the Church of England. And many more repelling trait night when we see people in stocks on TV shows with their hands on their heads and the stocks things being thrown at them. It's often shown as a kind of comedy thing, but actually it's a form of torture and a pretty brutal way to treat people. The most high profile resistance came from John Fisher, who especially with Rochester, Sir Thomas More, who both refused to take the oath of supremacy. In other words, they wouldn't acknowledge Henry as head of the Church of England. Both Henry on Chrome While hope that fissure a more would relent on could be spared from execution. Other, Fisher publicly rejected Henry as head of the church, where it was more careful to observe the trace and the art of 1534, which didn't ICT law silence. So his way of going about things was just decide not to speak. Although he was eventually convicted of high treason. And that was based on a conversation he had had with Richard Rich, the Solicitor General. Both more on Fisher were executed and some are 1535, more helping a friend of Henry. So he must have had some regrets about that. High profile executions and suppressions lead to resistance to Henry's reforms. The suppression that religious highs, his act of 1535, also known as the distillation of the lesser monasteries, really contributed to that. One very notable uprising was the pilgrimage of grass, which happened in Northern England. And October 15th, 3620 to 40 thighs and rebels were led by the lawyer Robert asked on members of the nobility, and they actually dealt with them quite leniently at first, he promised to pardon them. And actually thanked them for raising an important issue. But in reality, he viewed them as traitors. And when there was farther violence, he didn't feel bind by the word He had given them. He executed the rebel leaders, including ask on 200 rebels and total lost their lives. On January the 15th, 36, Henry was informed that Catherine of Aragon had died, and the next day he famously came to court dressed in yellow with a white feather and has bought, which seemed like a pretty callous way of celebrating his former wife staff. Although some historians say he might've been trying to nod towards her Spanish heritage. I'll let you make up your own mind. I was pregnant at the time on she feared the consequences should she fail to produce a living male sum. This time. Later in January, Henry was on Horst and adjusting tournament and he sustained serious, potentially life-threatening injuries that would impact him for the rest of his life. Went on her, the news, the shock caused her to miscarry a male child at 15 weeks. That happens to be the day of Catherine's funeral. Was really the beginning of the end of on hand raise marriage. The Berlin Family were powerful at court. They sought on the Privy Council. Also have powerful enemies including logic of Suffolk, on her own uncle, the Duke of Norfolk, who resented her attitude to her status. Berlin influence with handwrite had been damaged and that they feared an alliance with France over the Holy Roman Emperor. And Henri took the complete opposite view. Former supporters of Catherine of Aragon and those who supported a reconciliation with Princess Mary also opposed on. So there are a lot of animals ranged against her. A second element, likely at some belief that Conwell extended his influence on ads opponents to seek her execution rather than an element. Historians are divided regarding whether odds Don felt was from allegations of conspiracy, adult rate, or witchcraft. Henry them moved to his 24-year-old mistress, Jane Seymour, into new quarters. So adds position is wake. Brother George blend. It was refused the order of the Garter at this point. Very public snub. Between the 30th of April, on the second of May, five men, including George Berlin, were arrested for treason and the form of having a adulterous relationships with an odd was also arrested for traceless adultery and incest. The accused were all fun guilty, despite the evidence being pretty spurious on the man were executed on the 17th of May 15th, 36. Cranmer, a knowledge on and Henry's marriage, he actually had difficulty finding grinds to a metal it. So he presumably used Henry's previous affair with Mary Berlin SR, which according to common law, made the marriage to add within a forbidden degree of affinity. It I am. On the 19th of May 15th, 36 was executed on tar grain at the Tower of London. Henry commuted on sentence from burning, which would've been a particularly horrible death to beheading, honey hard a skilled French swordsmen to take her head off and one swing rather than have her had hacked off with an oxide. No, that's disgusting, but that was the thinking behind it. Before and after receiving the Eucharist on, swore that she had never been unfaithful to the king. She wore a red petticoat under a dark gray dam has gone trim with R7. So she looks simple, but she looked every inch equation. Anti remarkable good spirits were much commented upon. She doesn't try to defend herself on, she doesn't attack the king. Good Christian people I am Come hither to die for according to the law and by the law I am judged to die and therefore I will speak nothing against it. I am Come hither to accuse no man nor to speak anything of that where all of I am accused and condemned to die. But I prayed God save the king and Santa's long to run over you in front. Gentler, more and more merciful prints, was there never? To me he was ever a good, gentle, and sovereign lord. If any person who will metal of my calls, I require them to judge the best. That's I take my leave of the world and all of you all. And I hardly desire you all to pray for me. Oh Lord, have mercy on me. To God, I command my soul. Carl, who was Secretary to the French ambassador, wrote a poem, a bite on staff, asserted the after her speech, the spectators could not refrain from Tears. Removed her arm and mantle on, tucked her hair up. She'd had bid farewell to her to sobbing female attendance and asked for prayers. She notes on, on one of her ladies blindfolds at her and she knelt upright as was the custom at French banks. Remember that she had spent part of her young life and France, and she kept repeating, GZ received my soul. O Lord God, have pity on myself. And as anticipated, she was killed by a single stroke. The execution was witnessed by some dignitaries and clipping Thomas Conwell, Charles bronze on the first week of Suffolk, who was Henry's brother-in-law and had always been as animate. And Henry Fitzroy, the king's illegitimate son. Cranmer stayed and Lambeth Palace on lamented she who has been the queen of England on Earth multi-day become a queen and have them. Remember when Margaret Beaufort have been found guilty of treason against Richard the Third, she had not been executed. In the medieval world, you didn't execute women. So this was something that actually really shocked people. Cromer had tried to raise them with henry went on, was arrested online. He felt a little bit vulnerable, was buried in an unmarked grave and the Chapel of San Pedro avuncular and the award of the Tower of London are really ignominious. Burial. Her remains were identified during renovations and it contains 70 it on a marker has been placed on the chapels marble floor to mark the place where she lies. Henry became a gij to ancillary and waving Jane Seymour. They married only ten days later at the Palace of Whitehall. The service was conducted by Stephen gardner, the Bishop of Winchester. On the 12th of October 15th, 37 Jane gave birth to a son, the future Edward the Sixth. Henry VIII had his male heir that he wanted and he was euphoric. But Jane had had a difficult birth and she died of the complications of childbirth on the 24th of October 15th, 37, and she's buried at Windsor Castle. The search for a new wife for handwrite basically began immediately. And the Privy Council and Chrome l felt that the new queen should be European royalty, although his wife, so Henry chose to be buried alongside Jane Seymour, and historians speculate, but she was his favorite wife, possibly because she produced the male heir that he wanted. John Russell, the first style of Bedford. Describe jhanas as gentle, validity as I ever knew, a very different personality to the volatile blend. Poly dollar. Virgil, the tutor historian said she was a woman of utmost charm and both character and appearance. She was a same way queen for Henry the Eighth. She was probably proclaimed queen on the 4th of June 15th, 36. And she was known for her public sympathy towards Queen Catherine because she'd also being lady in waiting to Catherine of Aragon. She was sympathetic to princess married. So she did a lot to create a reconciliation between Henry and his daughter. Not compassion may have her popular with the public and at court. She was never actually crammed due to a plague and London, she was a stricter, a more decorous Kwame that she bond the French fashions which on hard and trigger. For example, although believed to have been politically conservative, she only intervened and politics for asking for pardons for the rebels from the pilgrimage of grants with O Henry of course refused this, reminding her of what happened to the last queen who in his words, metals and his affairs. So as bowl-shaped out as opinionated on is also dead, Don't be like ad was probably what Jan was thinking. She took us her motto, bind to obey and serve. Jan actually grew close to marry and try to have her restored to court unnamed and the succession behind her children with handwriting. She couldn't restore married to the Succession ultimately though, but she debit achieve a reconciliation between Mary and Henry. And Mary and Elizabeth were restored to the succession only at the behest of Henry sixth wife Catherine Parr, who convinced him to restore them. It's not done, not for many years. During her pregnancy, she apparently cribbed quail and Henry had it brought from Kali and Flanders, especially for her during the summer. She didn't not impair a public as she was tangent five positions on midwives. Everybody was very excited about this birth. Young Edward was christened on the 15th of October 15th, 37, in his mother's absence, which was actually customer rate at the time. Mary and Elizabeth carried AdWords christening trend. James labor had actually lasted for two days and three nights after the Christmas. She appear to be very unwell. As we heard before. She died on the 24th of October 15th, 37 at Hampton Court Palace. On the 12th of November 15th, 37, she was buried and St. George's Chapel when XHR on Mary was her chief mortar because it was a customer at the time that the king did not attend. Funeral. She didn't associate the king with death. Basically, Mary was followed by 29 mortars, one for each year of geons, short life. She was the only one of Henry's lives to be accorded acquaintance, funeral. Henry Ward black for three months. He gains a lot of wet and he developed guide and diabetes. He basically really suffered as a consequence of Jane Seymour staff. As we've mentioned, historians believe that she was his favorite wife. He really genuinely loved her. After Henry's death. Jane's brother, Thomas married Catherine Parr. And under Edward the Sixth, her brother Edward man himself, lord protector. Both brothers actually fell from grace and ended up being executed. Wife number four of cleaves. And this is the very famous portrait of her, which caused a little bit of drama, which we're going to hear about later. Like sexist attitudes are really clear and this story and that no matter what the accomplishments or position of a woman might be, she is judged by her peers and sometimes by history based on how physically attractive she was deemed a bay. And not just generally, but by one man out of Cleves is rather unfairly or in the title the flam nurse mare. This is the famous portrait of her by Hans Holbein, as I was saying, that's meant to be, we know I think are quite realistic depiction of her. I think she looks really nice. I would go out for coffee with her. Anyway. Let's talk about high this marriage. Kim abide a bit of background with peaceful relations with fronts. Henry had been occupied with domestic affairs in the 1830s, including the annexation of whales by the laws of Wales Act in 1535. Meanwhile, on the continent, Charles and Francis has made pastes. In January 1539. Chromo them kept supplying Henry with endless possibilities for threats that could be posed to England. Chromo was Henry spy master at the time. Henry used money from the dissolution of the monasteries to build coastal defenses that just in case there happened to be a Franco-German and vision. But as a political defense, chromo suggested a marriage between Henry, who was 949, on the 25-year-old daughter of the Jacob cleaves. The ticker religious styles that was somewhere between Lutheranism on Catholicism. He would be a useful ally should Catholic European countries decide to attack England. Hans Holbein the younger, it was sent to paint a portrait of an for a head, right? And he specified that this not be a flattering portrait. He wanted to know what she actually look like. It's been speculated that the portrait walls are flattering one other at present, the thinking is that it was fairly accurate. So the combination of Holbein portrait on an encouraging descriptions of iron from his courtiers convinced Henry a gray to the marriage. Henry agreed to pay a 100 thousand Florence to William, who was adds brother, who led the Protestants of Europe and was a key ally. How many Hoffman's be attracted to educated, sophisticated women on ARM was not an intellectual. She had no formal education on. She could read and write only and German. And many royals of the day, we're expected to speak multiple languages. She enjoyed needle work on, she 33. Henry VIII Part 2 : Bringing us onto tragic young wife number five, Catherine Howard, on the 28th of July 15th for day, the day that Cromwell was executed for heresy. Henry married Catherine Howard, who was on the lens, first cousin and a half being her lady and we're dying. He was absolutely besotted with her. And he gave her Chrome wells lands on a huge collection of June. At this time, Catherine was 19 and handwrite was 49. She took us her molto, the French norm, Volante careless yam. No other well but his subservience and submission or the way you needed to go as Kwame Henry spoiled his young wife after their marriage was made public on the 8th of August. She was considered too young to take part and state affairs, though. No coronation was planned, although she sailed down the times on a barge to gum select. So she did have a sort of ceremony, Pomp and Circumstance f naught, or meaningful political role. She preferred French fashion with gold on the slaves. And she went on progress in August 15th for date and a skipped the plague and London. So she's living in shelters and spoiled life at this moment. The King went on a lavish spending spray after the marriage on refurbish the Palace of Whitehall. He gave katherine very expensive Christmas gifts of Hampton Court Palace. Henry had developed a painful leg ulcer at that time. It impacted on his mood quite a lot and he became increasingly ill tempered. He was also not in great forum because he regretted execute on Chrome. Well, his Bob moods persisted through March and lifted around Easter time of year. Catherine was thought to have become involved with Thomas Karl Popper, who was a member of the court, who was very much a favorite of Henry's him. She had considered marrying when she was enclaves maid of honor. She wrote a love letter to him, which is the only one of her ladders that survives. And he wrote a love letter to her calling her my little sweet. But it wasn't just foolish this relationship. It was very, very dangerous. They are thought to have had regular meetings and spring 1541 arranged by Jane Bolin, who was George Berlin's wet. Catherine was black males by individuals who knew that this relationship was going on. And some of these may have been members of her own household. John Locke, who was a supporter of Chrome. Well, Approach Cranmer to tell him that his sister Mary refused to join the Queen's highest vote because of her light ways. In other words, it's sort of sexual impropriety. Cranmer question Mary, who said that Catherine had had sexual relationships whilst in the care of the Duchess of Norfolk, had looked after her, after her mother had died in her childhood. This was before her marriage. But it gave crown munition against the Norfolk because they were a powerful Catholic family. And his way, Liddy Rockford, Jim Blinn face torture on. So she gave information about how she watched the stairs who call pepper could skip from the Queen's room. Loved laughter from Catherine was actually thawed and call peppers chambers. And that was the only letter written by her which survived to the present day. And you can see it here on the screen. On all since die, the first of November 1541, the king was praying in the Chapel Royal, but he received a lateral outlining the allegations against Catherine. On the 7th of November. She was questioned by Cranmer, the delegation at Winchester palace and southern crowd Petals, the teenager saying, I found her and such lamentation and heaviness as I have never seen, no creature that would have pitied any man's heart to have looked upon her. He ordered the guards to remove anything but she could use to commit suicide. Could have argued that Catherine had a pre-existing contract with Francis Darwin, who was the secretary to the Dodge or Duchess of Norfolk, who had raised Catherine and childhood. But unfortunately, Catherine didn't take the light. She claimed that darum had raped her. This was unfortunate because she could've been banished from court rather than executed. On the 23rd of November 1541, Katherine was stripped of the title of Queen and imprisoned at Cyan, AVI and Middlesex, which was a former calm, but she was obliged to return the ring that King had given her as a symbol of her royal rights. And she never saw Henry again. Callow pepper on darum were executed at Tyburn on the 10th of December, 1541. Called Pepper was beheaded on Darrow was hanged, drawn and quartered, which is just a particularly nasty form of execution, which involves being disemboweled on the Baldi, cut into pieces. Their heads replaced on spikes on London Bridge. Several of Catherine's family members were imprisoned for life and the Tower of London. Their goods confiscated fur, concealing treason. Her oncologic of Norfolk retreated accounting Hall and light, all blame on his knees and his stepmother, the duck, just parliament passed a bill of a tinder against Catherine on the seventh of February 15th, 40 to the royal assent by commission art to 1541, made it treason for a queen not to disclose her sexual history to a king within 20 days of the marriage or to commit adultery. Catherine received no trial. When the console came for her, she screamed hysterically and flat. And it is sad if you're into this kind of thing that if you visit Hampton Court Palace, you might actually see her ghost running down the gallery, screaming hysterically, trying to get away from the guards sent to arrest her. Here is a quite touristy image of the proportion ghost of Catherine Howard's at Hampton Court Palace. But it's very much worth visiting. Hampton Court Palace, whether or not you believe in ghosts has a lot of fascinating history to it. On the 10th of February 15th, 42, Catherine was bundled onto a barge which took her to the tar, passing under the heads of wallpaper on darum, which was very crew. Their heads actually remained there until 1546. She entered the tar through traitors get, and her execution date was set for Monday, the 13th of February of 1542. The night before her execution. She practiced leg her head on the block, again on a GAN for ours. The execution, she required assistance onto the scaffold, but she died with composure. Legend has her last words as I die a queen, but I would rather have died the wife of color paper. But no eyewitness accounts actually support that legend. And say that she asked for forgiveness for her sins and praised Henry's gracious treatment of her, which would have been a more traditional execution stage. She also asked for mercy for her family and prayers for her. Which was also something that people being executed often dead. Because the last words of execution eight where conveyed to the king and he would hear what she had to say. It took only one ox blow to kill Catherine. Francis, the first wrote and sympathy to Henry that he was sorry to hear a byte luge on naughty behavior of the queen and remarked that the lightness of women cannot bend the honor of man. Lady Rutherford was executed right after Catherine walls on both bodies were buried in unmarked graves and the Chapel of St. Peter advent July, where on, on George Berlin were also buried. It was an ignominious final resting place. Catherine's remains have not been fine, Does she wasn't one of the ones discovered in 1870 it, but she is not commemorated by a plaque on the west wall dedicated to all those who died on the tar. This brings us to Henry's final wife, Catherine Parr. Henry married his final wife, who was a wealthy widow, Catherine Parr. And 1543, she believed and religious reform on, argued with Henry, abided and whenever he quite liked opinionated intellectual women, par, help to reconcile Henry with his daughters, which was a very important role in the family. In 1543, the third Succession Act restored them to the line of succession after Edwards, they have beta excluded before Catherine died a year after Henry did. And she had for husbands in her lifetime, which made her the most married English queen called sort. She was the first woman to publish on an original work under her own name and English, which was her prayers on meditation's. She actually published three books and total. And she was personally involved in the education of Elizabeth on AdWords. And she was a very big influence on Elizabeth. When henry went on campaign and frogs, Catherine was appointed reagent from July to September 1544, and she was a competent administrator. She was named as AdWords reagent should Henry died. After Henry dead die, Catherine became Elizabeth guardian because she was protestant and very much so, she made empty Protestant animates out. A warrant for her rest was drawn up in 1541, but she and the king soon reconciled and she came to no harm. When Henry died in 1547, she was large KBT per royal Jews on dresses. She then married her fourth husband, Thomas. Same our firstborn see more of suddenly, who was Jan say Morris brother. Katherine died of complications of childbirth on the 5th of September, 1548. Her funeral was the first Protestant funeral in English and England. Elizabeth, the first hop Catherine's prayer for the king, included in the Book of Common Prayer. So it could still occasionally be used by Africans today. Theoretically, Catherine was the niece of Thomas Cranmer. It so happens that famous Archbishop of Canterbury, It's thought that Catherine's auctions as regents, which included provisions finances, are creating for Henry's military campaign in France, greatly influenced the future Queen Elizabeth the First, who was also influenced by the dignity of her life and her lit or religious beliefs. Princess Elizabeth translated Catherine's adaptation of Thomas a canvases imitation of Christ, and to Italian, Latin, and French as a New Year's present for her father and December 1545, as well as his marriages. Henry the IP is very famous for his religious reforms. Kate, amongst those being the dissolution of the monasteries night, I've mentioned before that I am a medieval list by specialism. The dissolution of the monasteries wiped out some very important artifacts and texts of medieval England, which are lost forever online, leave gaps in our knowledge. So I have a personal beef with Andrew the nth because he did not remain high. Many monasteries have you visited where they have said after the dissolution of the monasteries on your lab to believe that the building maybe wouldn't be intact because they were met Eva buildings. But we would have so much more to say on to understand, had it not been for the dissolution of the monasteries. This occur between 15361541. Henry, despite added monasteries prior A's convents on Friday praise, and England, Wales and Ireland. And he appropriated their income on assets. It pretty much for himself. Much of the income was used to fund Henry's military campaigns and the 1880s, which were unsuccessful. Parliament passed the act of supremacy and 1534, which permitted him to carry out this policy because he is not officially head of the Church of England. And that cut England off from papal authority of the Pope could no longer interfere. And Henry's marriages and personal life, which is pretty much what he wanted. The first Suppression Act of 1535, on the second suppression OK, to 1539, also increase the power of the monarch and gave him rights to the assets of the Catholic Church, which was gonna make him pretty wealthy because it was a pretty powerful institution of the ****. The dissolution of the monasteries was overseen by Thomas Cromwell, who was vicar general on vice regent of England. He had hoped for reform rather than dissolution of the monasteries, but that's not what came to pass. That dissolution project was created by the chancellor Thomas oddly and Richard Rich, who was head of the court of augmentations, which was fine to administer the monastic revenues and properties. He became Lord Chancellor letter under Edward the Sixth. There were 900 religious highs as in England, 260 monks, 300 were for regular columns. That meant characters who happened to live with other clerics. And 142 compounds and 183 Fridays. This total 12 thousand people living in religious institutions, which was actually a pretty big proportion of the population at that time. 4 thousand monks, 3 thousand cannons onto thighs. And I know I was talking about the loss of artifacts from loss of tax. But we also have to ask the question, what happened to the people? What happened to these many people who were living in these places? We're going to find that ICT. One adult male and 58 was actually a member of a religious order at this point. So it was very much part of the fabric of society. These people we're going to have to live somewhere, going to have to be, find other roles in society. Henry dissolved 625 of the 900 institutions. Handful of religious houses hopping funded by Celtic, an Anglo-Saxon orders before the Norman conquest. And so we're very, very old. But most of those that were dissolved by Henry had been funded. And the 11th or 12th centuries when there was a sort of fashion for building monasteries throughout Europe. The finders of these houses supplied them with temporal income from lans basically. And they had talents and spiritual income from parish churches which were under the finders patronage. And we're asked to find honestly support the monasteries, religious houses there for only about a quarter of the country basically, and it's landed wealth. There's a lot of money to be met by appropriating. Not unlike monasteries though, friars were mostly found in urban areas. Friars were mendicants. They lived on arm, so the charity of others, they produced their own. Foods which they agree themselves, and kitchen gardens. So there wasn't a lot of money to be had from them. I'm inelastic. Way of life was also under threat. And European countries which had embraced the Lutheran Reformation. So it's not purely an English phenomenon here. Remember I mentioned earlier that Henry, they didn't want to create a new religion. He utilized thinking that was right there in Europe. To his own hands. The new religious regime came from the king, rather than a shift and religious thinking and the wider population. And so it was met with suspicion. Especially in some areas of the population. In some areas the reforms were actually met with resistance. As we heard before when we talked about the pilgrimage of grass, there had been criticism of monasticism by theologians and scholars prey data in the dissolution of the monasteries. While famous theologian who criticized a monastic way of life was the duct deaths of diarrhea. So Erasmus felt that monastery is basically how much wealth on that they profited too much from the trends and things like relics. I'm not resources would be better used to train up parish priests at grammar skills who could actually serve the land. Basically, he didn't see monks and nuns as contributing much to the common good. Pilgrimages to monastic shrines, which had been very popular in the medieval period. The middle of money, if you've read Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, you'll have some idea what I'm talking about. But these continued and popularity until suppressed by order of Henry the eighth. Worship and local parish churches remain much the SAM. And it didn't reflect Lutheran or a reformation way of thinking, particularly at that point. In fact, Lutheranism was generally met with hostility at this point in history. In 1536, parliament and act of the ten articles which became part of the letter Thirty-nine Articles of religion, outlining the beliefs of the new charge of England. These took some ideas from Luther on the German Lutheran reformers, Philip Melanchthon. The six articles of 1539 pre-planned henry's desire for orthodoxy and standard moved towards all light Protestantism, remembering happening quite a staunch Catholic and his youth and it actually written catholic reflections. These articles remain in effect until after Henry's death. Thomas Chrome OS at visitors, which is another word for inspectors to monstrous, collecting stories of impropriety, vice on excess, which may have been exaggerated, but they needed some kind of basis of moral light red to best the dissolution of the monasteries on the car 30-some observant Franciscans on bridge maintain orders had all benefited from royal favor at, in the past and they had received and diamonds land that had been confiscated by criminals. Although at this point in history, donations to religious institutions tended to go towards Paris churches on university colleges as well as grammar skills on collegiate churches rather than to monasteries. Satisfy MSM, a sort of way of life that was dedicated to reflection and poverty. It was pretty much a thing of the past on, amongst, on nuns actually lived relatively comfortably at this point in history. When you think about it, if you were the fifth of sick child and a family, you weren't likely to inherit anything and you have no children to support you, then a religious institution was a good bat because you are going to be cared for and your old dad, you weren't going to have to worry about where your meals were coming from. You know, there were things that appealed up, I thought life. Because monasteries where the richest religious high rises from 1534, Henry and Cornwell sought to redirect their wealth to the crime, claiming that much of it had been appropriated from the crime. Anyway, no, I that is debatable, but this was the thinking. The surrender of the friar AES was merely an administrator of tying up loose ends because there wasn't much money to be had from the Fridays, as we heard earlier. Monasteries used their land to the self-sufficient, place, little burden on their parish churches. They enjoyed local support, especially as they appointed local dignitaries to paid officers. The friars weren't so popular because they lived from alms and how to be supported. They also lived through being remembered and legacies who they were seen as diminishing inheritances when people left them money on their whales. Henry saw monastic resistance as trays, the bowl, and also a breach of the VEI of obedience sense he was supreme head of the Church of England. Monk should be being obedient to Him. Of course, not all monks sought like that exciting to royal supremacy. Religious orders were required to acknowledge the validity of henry's divorce on re-marriage as well. Religious figures who resisted were imprisoned until they recounted or they were executed for treason. Not a great choice there. The Greenwich observant friars were imprisoned, with many of them dying of ill-treatment whilst then present, the Carthaginian submitted apart from their London Heist, some of whom were executed for high treason and 1535, and others dying of starvation whilst in prison. The pose the supremacy and so were imprisoned, although the nuns were spared as the acquiescence of the abbess was seemed to represent the whole highs. The visitation of the monasteries, them began in 1534 on the Henry the eighth behalf Chrome OS and visitors, which was really another word for inspectors to establish the taxable value of the monasteries and gather stories of moral laxity, especially sexual misdemeanors, we need to gallery best Scandal hair. Monks were encouraged to confess and inform on their peers. Many of these stories where I did it by decades or grossly exaggerated, but written reports were produced in 1535. The visitors encouraged a strict adherence to common dining on cloistered living. Those unwilling to comply with this, we're encouraged to leave on many dead. So wherever religion was considered grit and the numbers were low, a horse was pretty much dissolved on the spot. And other cases, the prior abit or patron was purported to be petitioning the King for distillation. There was a good legal case for the proper day of the religious high-rises, reverting to the original pitch and, or their heirs. Of course, Henry didn't want that to happen. He wanted to make sure it went to the crime on legislated accordingly. Received the proceeds after the religious highest Act was passed and 1535, it gets Henry the right to dissolve mom strengths and relied on evidence of impropriety provided by his MIT, Cromwell. Monasteries with less than £200 on your income with low incomes were automatically dissolved, are paid heavy fines to remain open. And renters were taken off the smaller sizes which were tabled for distillation. Pensions on cash incentives were given to their superiors to help speed up the process. Monastery surrounded instantly after all, this was these people's way of life, their community. A commissioned reported to Chrome well for a decision on closure and a bite sizes were exempted, most of these paid a fine. Whatever the claims of patrons are benefactors, the property of smaller sizes just went straight to the crime. The incomes of lay holders of monastic offices on the rights of tenants of monastic lands, where preserved. Nuns and monks were offered cash incentives for secularization or to transfer it to the larger monastic houses. Most chose to continue a religious vocation. Norton prior and chatter on HAXM RP, and with Cumberland attempted to resist the commissioners, the priors and canons of Norton, where I'm present. The hexane Collins, who become involved in the pilgrimage of gris, where executed, came to associate monasticism with Trajan. Trajan, the act of 15 Thirteen give all the property of an individual convicted of treason to the crime. Henry viewed Albertsons buses as the owners of monastic property. And if they were traceless, well, that was rightfully His to take, Wasn't it? Their land. Monasteries, which remains native funds, especially in light of sizeable fines they have to pay. So they laced ICT lands on give fee paying offices for cash. The amount of income that the Cron got from Manasseh causes the long-term finances of remaining monasteries was questionable though, after the loss of income from shrines on pilgrimages, which had been a key part of their income. Fairing, treason charges, I'm financial ruin. Many priors and abbots voluntarily surrender. Monks were offered pensions that they cooperated amongst the unknowns who were aged disabled or L, got higher pensions. Nuns received much lower pensions than monks though. Sexism and pensions, not something that just happened recently. These nums, like their male counterparts, were forbidden to marry. They had little employment prospects, so they fast rail, financial hardship, shrines relax, and other architectural features also started to be removed around this time. In it, both 1539, parliament legalized acts of voluntary surrender and assured tenants rights. Some still resisted though on the abbots of glass and break coach has to unwrap, were hanged, drawn and quartered for treason. There are horses were dissolved and they're monks were given low pensions to go and live another life. Basically, there are recorded instances of groups from within institutions deciding to reside together after distillation, but none where the whole community stayed living together. A non where they continued monastic observance, which would've been pretty dangerous and not political climate. 117 charges which had formed part of monasteries, were still used for public worship. Both things were actually burned, dying. We think not so much as a sort of hint crime, but to extract the lab from the right thing on gutters. And this was all part of destroying the architectural legacy of the medieval period. And many other things were also destroyed. Whenever the buildings we're done. Building stones on slit roofs were sold with making money from absolutely everything he can. Henry the eighth, as part of Chrome OS campaign against superstition. As he viewed it, valuables were seized on melted down and cleaning man a precious artifacts on the tombs that the kings. And since we're reading for valuables on the relics destroyed or lost, the crypt of Alfred the grit actually had such a fit and we heard earlier a byte high hi, tomb of Richard the third was actually lost after the dissolution of the monasteries, important historical sites just vanishing. Some academics believe that neglect, rather than later and vandalism, led to the destruction of the abbeys. Cromwell fell from grace and 15 four-day handwrite used when nastic income to fund campaigns in France and Scotland. And nobles on former patrons could buy a monastery at this point, a cost of 20 years and calm, that meant that they would get a lot of land. And these Kim with the rights to have tenants of those lands. There are also examples of monastic properties that Henry basically gift his myths, Laycock Abbey and wheelchair, a place that I used to visit all the time. A former convent became a tutor mountain. And it's a fascinating building because it's a medieval combat that became a tutor mansion, that became a 19th century monarchies, that became a 1940s SKU. It's just an amazing building. And if you ever get a chance to see it, Let's talk a little bit about the repercussions to society of the desolation. All the monasteries, religious houses, hobby centers of hospitality on learning. Although by the early 16th century, universities where emerging, especially at Oxford and Cambridge, they were also a principal source of support for the elderly. I'm unwell though. And so the quick removal of 800 of these institutions left a huge gap. And Social Care. Royal action on the enhanced wealth and status of the local gentry, as well as the introduction of Protestants and anti-clerical ideas from Europe were all factors. And the demise of the monastic way of life. Really big loss. I cry as these words come out of my mouth. The loss of monastic libraries was huge. The greatest cultural destruction of the English Reformation. Wr primary alone has 600 bucks, one that you think of a book and the medieval period, something that was made with caught asleep inks on vellum at might've taken up to a year of backbreaking work to make a book. Those contend the texts I'm thinking of the medieval period and also many of the myths and legends such as Beowulf, that could have survived to today, just gone. Some books were destroyed for their bindings and others were sold off. Henry the eighth dead commission and antiquarian Jon Leland, to find and preserved particularly precious items, such as manuscripts of history written in Old English. And private collections were created by individuals such as matthew Parker, who later became Archbishop of Canterbury, but much more was lost, especially church music manuscripts, which I've never been printed because they didn't have a means to print musical notes online. We know nothing about and cannot read or recreate music from the medieval period. Thanks Henry. Pages from precious books were used to clean shoes on ROP groceries. Hospitals were also suppressed in 1539. These were dedicated to caring for the elderly. They were the equivalent of nursing homes, somewhere preserved but most more dissolved, discharging the residents with small pensions to go wherever, be cared for by her. If you didn't happen to have a family. Food and arms for the PR and deaths to change, which had previously come from monasteries, was also lost on that laptop class of people known as sturdy beggars, who were people who were of working edge but had. Entered until life style of bagging. With monastic hospitals, many schools which have been provided by monasteries where rayon died though, by private benefactors. So their work continued and was paid for privately. Charitable giving actually didn't rise to pray distillation levels and England until 15 a day. So I think if you were up her person and especially if you had some kind of chronic health condition or you really wanted your children to be educated on, couldn't afford us. The loss of the monasteries was going to impact on your life. Let's talk about Henry's letter military campaigns in 1539, the alliance between Francis and Charles degenerated, whereas following the deaths of Catherine of Aragon, that on our Boleyn, Henry's relationship with Charles, who was Catherine's nephew, as we know, actually improved. He decided to enter the Italian war alongside Charles, unintended to embed France in 1543. Particular, henry decided to neutralize Scotland because of the ILD alliance between Scotland and France. He thought that Scotland can be used for an invasion of England by the French. Basically, Scotland was then bang roads by the young Jim's, the fifth, that hand raised nephew. The Scotts were defeated at the Battle of soil away most on the 24th of November, 1542. And gyms died on the 15th of December. Henry wanted to marry his son AdWords to marry James is success are known to history as Mary Queen of Scots. But the parliament of Scotland rejected this union, and this led to it. Years of war known as the rough wooing. Henry hesitated to invade France in the end, I'm not irritated Charles, although he took personal command below and fell on the 18th of September at 1544, Henry refused Charles's request that he marched against Paris, though charts of this compound was unsuccessful and he ended up making peace with France. Henry was no, I left facing front solo and he couldn't back down on the neck pace. Francis attempted to invade England in the summer of 1545, but only got as far as the Isle of Wight. France and England, both basically run out of money. And so they signed the Treaty of camp on the seventh of June, 1546. On at this point, England was bankrupt. Let's talk about the final days of Henry the Eighth. Henry was not in pretty ill-health. He was a base. He needed mobility aids to move a rind. He also had pin for pus filled boils all over his body and he possibly suffered from guide. As we heard before, he had suffered an injury and adjusting tournament and 1536, which left him with a lifelong faster during wound back in the days before antibiotics. This accident might actually have been responsible for his mood swings as well. He died on the 20th of January, 1547 at the Palace of white, tall, aged 55. He's buried at St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, beside his supposedly favorite wife, Jane Seymour. And he was then succeeded by his nine-year-old son, Edward the Sixth. 34. Edward Vi 280122: So now let's talk about the very short Ran of Henry's much long for a son, Edward the Sixth, who's mostly remembered for having only lived to the age of 15 tragically. But his ran dead leave a lasting legacy. Edward the Sixth lived from the 12th, October 15th, 37th, to the sixth of July, 1553. And as I said, he died tragically young age of 15. He resigned from the 28th of January, 1547 until his death, and he was the son of Henry VIII. It, his purported favorite wife Jane Seymour, his third wife. During his ran, the country was governed by a regency console because AdWord never came of age. This was first lab by his uncle, his mother's brother Edward, CMR, first jake of Somerset, and later by the jig of Cumberland. His randoms impacted by the economic problems inherited from his father's role. You may recall that Henry the Eighth had left the country bankrupt due to his wars with Scotland on France. And also there was social unrest which to sanded and to rioting and rebellions. During the reign of Edward the synth. The expense of war with Scotland was pretty much lost by the time the Edward came to the throne. Upper took a keen interest in religion. It was during his reign that the Church of England became a Protestant. Night. Before that, Henry the Eighth have wanted to have a male heir of the Catholic Church, wouldn't allow him to dissolve his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. They're having practical reasons for the change of religion. Whereas in the case of AdWords, he really did have personal Protestant views. There had been a view in the past that AdWords was carried along by his ruling council and that he wasn't old enough to be behind the changes himself. But now historians are pretty much all of the view that Edward himself drove a lot of the religious reforms. He abolished clerical celibacy, which meant that ministers could be married. Anti-a polished the mass emitted compulsory that services be conducted in English. Whereas before they would've been in Latin. When he fell terminally ill. And 1553, he was determined that England should remained Protestant. So he didn't want his divide Catholic sister Mary to succeed him. And to achieve this, he created something known as the device for the succession, which we're going to hear a little bit of byte later at cause pandemonium. He named his first cousin, once removed, Lady Jane Grey as his heir. She was the great granddaughter of Henry the seventh, via his youngest daughter, Mary Lady Jane Grey, becoming known to history as the queen of nine days, the shortest ruling monarch in British history. And Mary than overturned Edwards protestant reforms. And then lateral, they were reinstated and 1559 under his other sister, Elizabeth the First. Let's talk a little bit of bite his very early life. Edward was born at Hampton Court Palace and they're followed much public celebration. The longed for air was finally there was the singing of Tyrtaeus and churches and his honor, bonfires on gum solutes. Here you can see a picture of Bybi AdWords looking for all the world, like a mini Henry the IV. He was christened on the 15th of October with his sisters, 21-year-old Mary and four-year-old Elizabeth, carrying his trend unimagined, big 21 years old, and expected to carry the trend of your baby brother. Not a nice situation for Mary, and of course, Mary and Elizabeth had both been declared illegitimate and had the titles of Lady Mary and Lady Elizabeth, didn't have the title of Princess. Baby Adwords was proclaimed Duke of Cornwall on our love Chester, and the heir to the throne is known as the Duke of Cornwall to this day, as I record this, Prince Charles as Duke of Cornwall. The queen fell ill from the complications of childbirth on the 23rd of October and die the next night. So Adwords sadly, never knew his mother. Henry wrote to France as the first of France, divine providence half mangled my joy with bitterness of the death of her who brought me this happiness. And he very much grieved for Jane Seymour. Edward was a strong and healthy child and a Henry is recorded as having hailed and played with him and taken him to a window for people to say. And May 15th, 38. The chancellor Thomas oddly remarked on AdWords growth and vigor. Historians don't disregard the traditional perception of AdWords as a sickly child because he died so young. It has been imagined that he was always quite sick, but we don't think that was the case. He did high effort, suffer from a form of malaria. Courtroom favor when he was four. He also had her eyesight, but he was otherwise healthy until 1553. Baby Edward was placed in the care of his sisters governance, Margaret Bryan borrow unless Brian, she was succeeded by Blanch Herbert to Liddy troy until the age of a byte six, he was raised by women. That affordable household was established for the print run by man. This was run by William Sidney than later William Page, who was the stepfather to Edward see Moore's wife on so. Young AdWords uncle Edward Seymour. So this is his aunt by marriage. And all gets very confusing, doesn't it? Also, William page was vice Chamberlain and the highest hold of Henry Fitzroy. Who was Henry the eighth illegitimate son? Henry the eighth called his son the whole rounds precious Jew. And he expected very high standards of cleanliness and security and AdWords household. Young Edward had a pretty cushy life. He had lots of toys, and he had his own trip of menstrual, meaning he had his own private bonds that he could call upon if he wanted to hear music. H6, he began his formal education under Richard Cox, who was date of Westminster announcer John Jake, who was professor of Greek up Cambridge. He learned languages, the Bible, philosophy, and all liberal sciences. He received additional tradition from Roger ask him who was Elizabeth Chitra and the French Huguenots scholar, John Bell Man, mostly in French, Spanish, and Italian. Remember, it was very important for European royals to speak several languages at that point in history. He learned geometry and how to play musical instruments, including the loot and the Virgil's, a keyboard instrument part of the harpsichord family pictured here, the tutor equivalent of playing guitar and piano. Basically. He collected maps and globes and he showed an excellent understanding of economics. He was intellectually very bright. His early religious education had a big impact on his ran. It was designed to support the reforms that his father had begun making. Cox and shake were reformed Catholics and a Raspbian. So we've talked about desolate area, Erasmus earlier who didn't like the institutions of the monasteries. Later they were exiled under Mary, the first average root of treaties on the Pope was Anti-Christ. So quite strong feelings from very early in his life. So what about his sisters did not put their nose out of joint to have this little baby boy turn up and take precedence over them? Well, not necessarily. There is evidence that his sister's often visited him. It might be nice to have a little baby brother suddenly arrive. Elizabeth actually give him a shark. She had met herself. Upward route to marry though, I love you most. In 1546, Nike dead really won't marry out of the succession later. But that didn't mean that he didn't, on a personal level have a thoughtless for his older sister. In 1543, Henry the Eighth decided to spend Christmas with his children. I'm not indicated he was willing to reconcile with his previously disinherited daughter. Mary being the daughter of Catherine of Aragon, whom he had divorced on humiliated. And Elizabeth being the daughter of ambulance, whom he had had beheaded. You could say that there would be some tensions possibly in that family. He restored them to the succession though the following spring. The third Succession Act, which restored Henry's daughters, also made provision for a regency console during Edwards minority. Catherine Parr, Henry, sixth and final wife, was a key player in achieving these improved family relationships. And we believe that the children were all actually quite fond of her. Edward called her his most dear mother, wrote to her, and September 1546, I have received so many benefits from you that my mind can hardly grasp them. Not Catherine Parr was very much a Protestant and her personal beliefs, not just in wanting to shore up her husband's new regime. And she seems to have been a big influence on AdWords and also on Elizabeth, the first. Edward was allowed to play with other children on sons of the aristocracy were appointed to attend on him. Sun's not daughters, forming his own little Court. He and his classmates academically and he competed with Elizabeth's academic achievements on Elizabeth, the First husband, I was very bright. We've seen high, she gave translations to her father as presence. For example, his household content, costly Flemish tapestries and his clothes, cutlery and Becks were all overlaid with gold and precious stones. So he's living in a pretty rarified environmental. I think it's safe to say. He wore a gold dagger with a jeweled health and imitation of Henry the eighth, his father. He chronicled English military exploits against Scotland on France and Theseus drastically. And how to kind of fascination with all things military. On the 1st of July, 1547, Henry entered into a treaty with the skulls and tending a marriage between AdWords. I'm Mary Queen of Scots, who was the granddaughter of Henry, the eighth sister. He insisted that Mary be brought up in England and that doesn't go down very well in Scotland. The sculpts repudiated the trade date and revive the ILD alliance between Scotland and France. In fury, henry ordered Edwards see more art of Hartford on young Edwards uncle to go to Scotland. On put all to fire and sword burden at Bretton, raised into fist when you have sacked and gotten what you count of it. As there may remain forever, a perpetual memory of the vengeance of God lightened upon them for their falsehood and disloyalty. So he's a bit chased them. Same or savagely attack Scotland and what became known as the rough wooing. Henry the eighth died on the 28th of January, 15479, year-old Edward the Sixth succeeded him. Adwords see more on William Paget decided to delay the announcement of Henry staff until a smooth succession could be organized. Cmr, who, as we've mentioned, was Edwards uncle answer Anthony broaden, the master of the highest, went to collect AdWords and Hartford and take him to Elizabeth's residents and an failed. When they got there, they told the children that their father had died and his world was rad. Henry staff on Edwards succession were announced in Parliament on the 31st of January, 1547. Edward the Sixth was crying at Westminster Abbey on Sunday the 20th of February. The reformation had rendered some of the coronation rights and appropriate, so they had to mix things up a bit for that ceremony. Cranmer reaffirmed royal supremacy. Thomas Cranmer, they Archbishop of Canterbury, and he called AdWords a second Josiah. Josiah was a biblical king. He carried out sweeping religious reforms and crushed idol worship and Catholicism with its use of relics and images, was starting to be described in terms of idol worship. Adword recalled and his chronic owed at the end saying banquet, he wore his crime to die. This little boy. It's nine. And the royal regalia must really have been something to sit. Just before we go on any farther. It's good to have a little look at the family tree of Edward the Sixth so that we can understand the relationships between people and the story that's abide to unfold. So you can see here the little English crosses and the little Scottish flags as well. So if you can look at the picture on find Edward, the sake of England and bold. His mother Jane Seymour, was the sister of Edward see more of the fresh GQ of Somerset, who becomes in-charge of the Regency, console becomes lord protector during the reign of Edward the Sixth, but only for two years. And then Thomas Seymour, his brother as another key player in the story. You can see that Henry The its sisters are listed here. Margaret tutor, who had of course, married the King of Scotland, is the grandmother of Mary Queen of Scots, to whom young AdWords have been engaged, but that didn't turn out well. Then Mary Tudor had a granddaughter called Lady Jan gray and Leary Jan as the person whom Edward names and his will to succeed him. So here it is in visual depiction if you find it easier to take. And that way I have to say that I usually need a little cup of tea after looking at Royal Family tracer there, the patagium, that one was way more complicated. Henry the Eighth had named 16 executors and his well, who were to form Edwards console and those were to be assisted by 12 support as he didn't actually Nim a lord protector. He didn't want to give that amount of par to one person. Presumably. Some historians believed that either Henry himself or his wealth was manipulated to benefit certain individuals, especially Edward seem or the Jacob Somerset. The Privy Council had drifted towards the reformers. And 1544, in the new religious system, there were reformers on traditionalists, and the reformers are coming to more prominence here. And two prominent Catholic members of the concept where removed. So some people did remain Catholic, but it didn't really do any political favors to do so put it that way. Thomas Howard, the logic of Norfolk, who was uncle of both ambulance on Catherine Howard, was accused of treason. He was a Catholic, and his lands were seized the day before Henry died. And then presumably given array. He spent the whole of AdWords ran and the Tower of London, either the Catholic queen, Mary, the first lift on him more kindly. There was a generous giveaway of lands on titles very strategically at this point, executors were permitted to gift themselves lands and honors under the terms of Henry's, especially AdWords, see more advertising, not been appointed protector and the will, as we mentioned, there was meant to be a console with majority rule. On the 4th of February 1547, the consulate conferred the role of protector on AdWords see magic of Somerset. This was a great by 13 executors on the other three, where absent. Some are set, may have given favors to the executors to secure this position. He's known to have done so in the cases of William Paget, Henry's private secretary, and Anthony Brian. Their walls on historical precedent for protectorates, those that wasn't a completely unusual thing to do. Somerset have achieved military success in France and Scotland. Andy HOD, blood tie to the young king. He was his uncle. March 1547. Edward granted him the power of monarchical writes, he's almost like a king and the right to appoint privy counselors may consult them when it was expedient to him. The ambassador from the Holy Roman Empire, Francois van der doth, remarked that Somerset governs everything. Absolutely. So this is the man who is in charge, but he wasn't unopposed. He was challenged by his younger brother Thomas saber, and by the chancellor Thomas arrives late. The Arlo Southampton righteously was a religious conservative, but he also objected to summer sets near monarchical power over the console. Ride slave was accused of selling officers and dismissed from his post as Chancellor. So he didn't do well from challenging the Duke of Somerset. Thomas Seymour wanted a greater share of power. That's why he challenged his brother. Edward tried to replicate him with a barney, the Lord admiralty and a seat on the private console. But it wasn't enough for Thomas. He smuggled money, pocket money to young king Edward, telling him that his uncle Edward was being miserly to him. Now here's a child who's knives, forks on general household items are gold. Flemish tapestry is everywhere. He is accustomed to living in a certain way. He also told AdWord that he was old enough to rule with autism protector, but Edwards doesn't really accept this and wouldn't give. In Spring 1547, Thomas secretly married Henry's widow Catherine Parr. Some drama hit their household. There are households included, the 13-year-old lady Elizabeth and 11-year-old Lady Jane Grey. So there's a couple of people in the line of succession in that high salt. So he's got himself into a powerful position. In summer 1548 fifths the pregnant Catherine farm Thomas embracing the 13-year-old Elizabeth. And if you're tempted to think, Oh, well, maybe that wasn't considered pedophilia and those days it walls. Elizabeth was octane, and nonetheless, she gets kicked off right after this. And she sent to live with the residents of Sir Anthony, Danny, and she was very fond of Catherine Parr, and this must have been completely horrible for her. Catherine died following childbirth. And Thomas than med, overtures to Elizabeth planning to marry her. Elizabeth reciprocated, but sort of any young, crushed kind of a way. But she would not agree to a marriage without the consent of the Regency console because this is a girl who has a head on her shoulders for all of her life. Unlike her mother, Sorry for that punk. Anyway, Thomas Siemer was arrested on several charges and January 1549, including embezzling from the Bristol, meant Young Edward testified about the pocket money Thomas have been giving him and that wouldn't have looked good on Thomas was accused of planning to marry Edward to Lady Jane Grey, which would really have been overstepping the mark. There wasn't really enough evidence for a trial. Thomas was condemned as a traitor by an octave, a tender, and executed on the 20th of March, 1549. Revolts were a key feature of the random Edward the Sixth Edwards, same as chief concern as protector, was to win the war with Scotland. He was actually victorious at the Battle of pancake and 1547. And he sat up garrisons and Scotland, but he lost erection as his aim of a conquest of Scotland was completely unrealistic. The huge cost of the army and garrisons have put a strand on royal finances add, the economy was already not grit. A French attack on the previously English held tighter billowing and 1549 fourths tend to withdraw from Scotland. So all is not going well on that front. There was also social unrest and England and 1548 revolts broke out fueled by discontent with religious reforms on land policy, military intervention was needed and Devin on Cornwall and a Norfolk. One of the most notorious rebellions was the prayer, but Rebellion caused by the imposition of Protestantism. Because remember the general public and public opinion had not suddenly decided to bend Catholicism and start to form a Protestant nation. That's had not come from the people at the heartbeat imposed by the king. So people are basically being told what to believe that was going to lead to some trouble. The second famous rebellion led by the Tanner Robert cat. Was in response to the encroachment by landlords onto communist grazing grind, which was used by a lot of the working classes and was part of the way that they sustain themselves. And their kids. Though the rebels strongly believed it was the landowners who were the law breakers, and that they have the protector support. So they didn't see themselves as rebelling and they didn't see themselves as breaking the law. Unfortunately, see more mid confusing and contradictory statements on this issue. And his investigations were uncoordinated. Local groups assume they have the right to act against offending landlord. So it was basically an arcade right there. King Edward wrote in his Chronicle, but the 1549 uprising started when certain conditions were set on to pluck dine enclosures. Same or was blamed by the console for the failure of government policy which led to the unwrapped. And in July 1549, Paget wrote to see more. Every man of the Console have missed, liked to your proceedings would to God that at the first star, you had followed the matter hotly and cause justice to be ministered in solemn fashion to the terror of others. In other words, people should have been punished as a deterrent for continued unrest. And it was believed that Seymour just happened to crack down hard enough. Facing a coup. On the 1st of October, 1549, CMR took the young king to the fortified Windsor Castle, and Young Edward wrote me, thinks I am in prison. The console acute see more of mismanagement. They had seen or arrested on the 11th of October, and the king was taken to Richmond palace. Edward list of the charges against his uncle and his chronicle, ambition, van blurry, entering into Rush wars and minute negligent working in New Haven. That was the way that he dealt with the whole landlord has shaped enriching himself of my treasure, following his own opinion on during all by his own authority. And that was the key problem for everyone. That AdWords Seymour was behaving as if he was a king. In February 1550, Joel Dudley, Earl of work, who later became the Duke of Norfolk Cumberland, became the clear new leader of the console. Cmr was actually released from the tar and regained his console States at this point. But he schemed to overthrow Dudley and ended up being executed. And January 1550 to say most wars have brought the crime to financial ruin and riots and rebellions having widespread during his tenure, he was not an effective administrator, but he had done some useful things. He had sought religious reform. He had refused to overproduce coins in order to lower prices. And he introduced a law requiring two witnesses to trace and not just one. Remember that some individuals we've heard of so far, such as Sir Thomas Maurer, were executed on the testimony of only one witness, the Earl of Warwick, as protector. So you can see here a picture of the young Edward. I'm not quite sure what kind of animal that is that he's playing with there, if you know Jay post-it and the comments, the Earl of Warwick was appointed to this rule by Thomas writes, the first Carlos I pumped on other bay had been political opponents at 1, his followers joined with Lorax. Anonymous console was created. Van observers such as the ambassador from the Holy Roman Empire expected that this would not overturn same or religious reforms. Work banked on AdWords strong personal religious views and told him that he was old enough to run and person. He moved himself on his associates closer to the king. He doesn't have that blood connection with the king that Seymour had hard, but he still wants to use the king to shore himself up. And he controlled the Privy chamber. Southampton ride SLI proposed the chaos to execute Somerset, hoping that he could neutralize work by DAG. That's because Somerset claimed he had been added by Somerset Bazin, the Duke of Somerset, Edward Siemer, weren't convinced parliament to free. Some are set on the 14th of January 1550 because you may have been wondering before white attain, free him, if he wants to be the new leader, isn't he better to get rid of the old lumbar? It was because he was implicated in the whole thing at that point, work offered titles to council members as bribes to get rid of Southampton and his followers. Work was nonetheless mid lord protector in real terms that we didn't have the official title on grit master of the king's household. Though he didn't have the official type of protector. He was de facto leader of the government. Console to the estate came into bang when AdWords turned 14 with its members being chosen by the King personally. You needed to get close to the king to stay in power. Basically, it met weekly. So AdWord could hear the debating of things of most importance. In the privy chamber. He worked with William Castle, who was later the Chief Adviser to Elizabeth the 1st and William patrons, the Secretary of State. So he starting to take an interest in step matters. But he exerted most influence in the area of religious reform. With counselors following his very Protestant agenda. As I mentioned before, it used to be believed that basically the counselors did their thing. The king just rubber stamped it, but not quite prominent historians such as David Starkey believe that protestant reforms really did come from Edward himself, Warren, who was neither Jacob, Nathan Berlant confounded most of the counselors and use the console to legitimize his actions. He added his followers to the console and he placed family members and AdWords household. So he's very much getting a tight grip on power. In 1550, he signed a peace treaty with France, withdrawing troops from billowing. He also recalled the English garrisons from Scotland. They weren't costing too much. In 1551, Edward was betrothed to Elizabeth Valois, who was the daughter of Henry the second of fronts north of Berlin, appointed crying representatives and local areas which reported back to the government in order to quell rebellions and try and stifle the civil unrest. He and others tried to address the economic crisis as well. It had been called by expensive wars, but unfortunately he did what Seymour had refused to do. He did best the coinage by overproducing coins to try and lower prices. By 1552, though coinage was restored, prices fell on trend improved. Full economic recovery didn't occur until the rule of Elizabeth. The first button, a thumb, Berlin dead Lay it's Fondation. North Cumberland cropped on on embezzlement of government funds and reviewed tax collection. And what historian GRS and calls one of the more remarkable achievements of the cheater administration. Other, he was very manipulative and scheming. He was a much better administrator than his predecessor had been. We've mentioned that ago Edward was very young. His own views dead have impact. The statesmen whom Edward the sixth trusted the most was Thomas Cranmer, the Archbishop of Canterbury. Before Edwards ran the Church of England, had rejected papal authority, but otherwise it was Catholic and the services were very similar to Catholic services under crown and Edward, it became a Protestant church. Following in his father's footsteps, Edwards dissolve the champ trees, and these were churches used for priests did second number of masses on behalf of departed souls. Sometimes they were paid for this and it confiscated church proper date to the enrichment of the crime. By the end of Edwards ran, the church was financially ruined. Edward rat, 12 chapters of Scripture daily, and he heard regular sermon. So he was personally divinely religious. He was socially conservative as well and ask Catherine Parr to admonish Lady Mary to attend no longer to foreign dances and measurements, which do not become a most Christian princess. The English Reformation continue to pay us with two camps for language. Mentioned that before, traditionalists on radicals, reformers who engaged in iconoclasm smashing images, not to them, That's smashing idols. To us. We could say that they destroyed precious artifacts of the medieval period at all, depends on your perception. Crown Mark was set the task of creating a uniform letter J and English to include all daily and weekly services and festivals. And as is usual, when you try to keep everybody happy, you make nobody happy. The resulting Book of Common Prayer of 1548 was attacked by traditionalists, were omitting key elements and reformers for containing purplish influences and of course their walls, the rabbit rebellion because people felt that Protestantism was being imposed upon them. Catholic bishops who objected to the book were imprisoned in the tar and lost their seats. The prayer book Rebellion and Devin and Cornwall led to the deaths of around 5,500 people who were executed. Henry the Eighth had seen adherence to the Catholic faith as treason. And whilst that isn't explicitly stated during the reign of Edward the Sixth, you can see that that thinking is definitely there. The ordinal of 1558 created a government run appointment system for praised. So at this point in history, there's no such thing as a separation of church and state. And there's no such thing as freedom of religion. The government as very much running the Church at this point, advert began to exert more personal influence as head of the church and more reformers were consecrated as bishops, reflecting his own personal views. Cranmer revised the Book of Common prior and 1551 to 1552 and made it less reformist. He then wrote the Church of England is doctrinal statement at the 42 articles, and these effectively abolished mass. So the Church of England is no longer an EDI, way, a Catholic church. The Reformation was advanced by Crown mark, but relied upon AdWords. And in Spring 1553, it became clear that Edward was dying. The king has become o with a respiratory disease and February he got better, but he had relapses. And eventually became clear it was terminal. Adword opposed Mary's succession, which would undo his religious reforms and also threatened the idea of male dominance in the line of succession. Since Mary had been declared legitimate, he was able to cut her from the line of succession any hard to cut Elizabeth as well, because she had also been deemed illegitimate, even though she was his sister and she was a Protestant. It just didn't work to cut marry without counting Elizabeth Edwards and craft of his device for the succession, naming his first cousin once removed, the ground daughter of Henry the seventh via his younger daughter, the 16-year-old Lady Jane Grey, as his heir. She had married a son of the jig of Northumbria, Lord Guilford Dudley. We've talked about high. We didn't want to challenge the idea that it's man who should inherit. And of course, he's left the throne to Lady Jane Grey. But at first he stipulated that male heirs of Jan, her mother and sisters could succeed. And it was actually near his death and possibly under Northumbria, infants that I changed this to permit the women themselves to enter into the line of succession, but this was only in the case that there were no male heirs. These provisions actually contravene the third Succession Act, which had been put in place under Henry the eighth. On the 15th of June, Edwards, someone judges to his sick bed and insisted he wanted parliament to ratify his device. He's doing everything he can before he dies to keep married off the throne. He then had counselors on lawyers sign a bond agreeing to enact as well after his death. They raise concerns. Button or thumb. Berlin threatened to physically fight anyone who objected and his own words in his shirt. So in other words, if you object to this, I'm gonna take my jacket off a bait you to a pulp. Yes. Mandate. That's a dignified way of purporting yourself with a deathbed of a king on the 21st of June, 1553. The device was signed by a 100 public figures and archbishops, counselors, and peers. Frantz feared Mary's succession on entered into talks with North Cumberland. Most diplomats at the court believed the public favored Mary as being the daughter of Henry the eighth, but would eventually accept Jn. The imperial Ambassador John side. Sad that Edward suffers a good deal when the fever is upon him, especially from a difficulty and drawing his breath, which is due to the compression of the Oregon's on his right side. The young king is at this point and a pretty bad way physically. In June, Edward began to cough up blood, which doctors believed was the result of a tumor on his lungs from which he would not recover. His legs became swollen and he was forced to lie on his back, telling John shake, I am glad to die, so he's really miserable. His final public appearance was not a window and Greenwich Palace on the 1st of July, 1553, he looked thin and very ill. Large crowds gathered hoping to see him again. Edward the Sixth died at 08:00 PM on the 6th of July, 1553, aged 15. John Fox recorded his last words as I am fat, Lord, have mercy upon ME on tik my spirit. He was buried at the Henry the seventh Lady Chapel in Westminster Abbey. Cranmer performed the funeral service. There was weeping and the streets of London for the loss of the poor boy king. His grave was actually unmarked until 1966 when Christ's hospital scope, latest stone to commemorate AdWord as their fonder. Rumors spread, but he had been poisoned presumably by Mary. 35. Mary I : Now we're going to talk about the English monarch known to history as Bloody Mary. Know it's not just a cocktail. Marry the first. And the reason she's known as Bloody Mary is that she killed 283 Protestants. Religious persecution. Which was for her not just an ideological thing, it was quite personal. Her Hitler, the Protestants, as we'll find ICT in this video. Now to put that in context, witch hunts and which executions in England killed quite a lot of people, 500 people. But between the medieval period, on the Stuart period and Mary killed 283 people in a very short space of time. And the context of European history though she's not the biggest tyrants ever, for example, and the French Reign of Terror, a byte 17 thousand people were killed in a very short period of time. That was an empty clerical movement. Some historians today question whether Mary really walls the tyrants that we now believe her to be. But when you find a little bit more obiter, you can make up your own mind. Mary Tudor, the daughter of Henry the eighth, married the first Bloody Mary, was also known as Mary Queen of spin because she married the king of spin. On, she lived from the 18th of February 1516 until the 17th of November at 1558. She ran from July 1553 when she deposed Lady Jane Grey until her death. She's mostly remembered for her attempts to reverse the English Reformation on undo what had been put in place by her father and her brother within the English Church other, she didn't really succeed in that. During her reign, she had 283 religious dissenters burned up the stick and what is now known as the marianne persecution. So that was the oxidative. There's no great way to be executed, but thought was particularly unpleasant to be burned at the stake. She was arguably the first queen regnant of England. Arguably because Lady Jane Grey had been acquainted, but only for nine days and Empress Matilda have had a claim to the throne, but she never actually became queen. So we can think of Mary the first as the first ruling Queen of England. And ironically after Henry the Eighth, going to such lengths to have a son. Within the tutor period, we have three queens in quick succession. Lady Jane Grey marry the first, and Elizabeth the 1st. And there hadn't vein a queen on the throne right the way through the ontogeny, period. In fact, the last female ruler that I can think off before Mary, the first is ethyl flat lady at the mercy of Mary married Philip of span and 1554, which was pretty controversial. And England as well saying not made her queen consort of Habsburg span. After she died, Elizabeth the first reversed her program of Catholic reforms. So her hard work towards the dead not stand for very long after her death. Mary was the only surviving child of Catherine of Aragon, Henry, the first wife on to Henry the Eighth. She was born with the policy of placenta and Greenwich on the 18th of February 1516. And she was baptized into the Catholic church when she was three days old. At the church, at the observant friars and Greenwich. Her godparents, we're all pretty important people. Chancellor Thomas Wo Zai was her godfather and her grandmother's, We're Kathryn context of Davin, who was a daughter of Edward the fourth on so was Mary's grit and Agnes Howard, The Duchess of Norfolk, who would become steppe grandmother to ambulance and Catherine Howard. So GCC High, confused and tied up the relationships between people and the court are which created a certain online to drama later, I'm sure Mary's confirmation took place immediately after her baptism with Margaret pool. The contrast of salt spray stopping us. Her sponsor, Margaret was the daughter of George ontogenetic, the brother of Richard the third out of Edward the fourth, the one that drains in the vat of wine. I'm sure you'll remember. Only one. Mary became a godmother herself to her cousin Francis Browne, who later became France as gray, the mother of Lady Jane Grey, and she was a grand daughter of Henry the seventh. Margaret pool became Mary's governance and 1520, John hussy was her Chamberlain, and that means he was in charge of her high sold. Like the other tutors, Mary was intellectually precocious and there are some stories of her playing the marginals for a French delegation. It's only 4.5. Her mother was responsible for her early education and she consulted the Renaissance humanists, who are Louisville March, who was known as the father of modern psychology. Gita, his writings on things like the soul and memory and learning. Remember that Renaissance humanism means an interest in the humanities. Catherine of Aragon commission tend to write a trait days on the education of girls called the institute's CEO night feminized Christiana. All the education of Christian women. Henry the eighth adored Mary when she was very tiny, she was very much Daddy's little girl. And he boasted to the Venetian Ambassador, thought she never cried, which was a little bit ironic given what would happen to her only a few years later. By the age of nine, Mary could read and write and Latin, and she also studied French, Spanish, music, dance, and possibly Greek. She had fair skin on red or red blonde hair and she had rosy cheeks. What she inherited from her father. In 1525, when she was aged Dome9, Mary was sent to preside over the console of whales on the marches up the Welsh border, which was presumably a ceremonial role. Mary was the arrow parents, but she was never formally invested as Princess of Wales, although wave and others refer to her as such on she is in Wales at this point and she was given a court at loved low castle. Henry negotiated several engagements for Mary. E2. She was betrothed to the French dopa Francis, but that was counseled after three years. And he ended up married to Mary Queen of Scots. At six, she was promised to her 22-year-old cousin, Charles, the fifth Holy Roman Emperor. Charles broke the agreements and later, Mary would end up married to his son Philip. Mary was Dan suggested as a wife for France is the first of France or his second son, Henry, the Duke of early on. In 1528, Wilson agent Thomas blackness proposed Mary as a bride for James the fifth of Scotland. So like a lot of royal women, she is a bargaining chip. She's there to make connections with other royal houses. Mary's parents marriage was going badly wrong by the time she reached adolescence. Henry wanted a male heir and tried to have pope climb up to the seventh and all of the marriage on the grounds that Catherine had been married to Henry's brother Arthur. Catherine kinda thought marriage had never been consummated and so didn't really count. From 1531, married develop long-term health problems, including irregular menstruation on depression. And she suffered from mental health issues on gynecological issues for the rest of her life that might have been part of a chronic disorder or the result of the stress that she was under due to the very public humiliation and ill-treatment of her mother and all of herself. She was forbidden to see her mother. In 1553, henry married on Berlin, on Thomas Crown Berg declared their marriage bullet. Catherine was devoted to Darwin's your princess because she had been married to Prince Arthur, Mary was declared a legitimate. And that must have been really terribly helpful because at 1, she had been close to her father and he's done this to her. She was my Lady Mary and no longer Princess Mary. Her status has been really lowered and her place on the succession was transferred to her newborn sister Elizabeth. Her household was dissolved on her attendance dismissed. Her way of life dramatically changes. In December 1553, when she was just short of turning 18, she was sent to live in baby Elizabeth's household and heartfelt and Hartford Sharp. Mary refused to acknowledge on his queen or Elizabeth as a princess, and that infuriated Henry. The royal physician attributed Mary's frequent per, health to her ill treatment. The imperial ambassador used a Chevy enter stated for her at court, but unsuccessfully, she did have people in the court who were sympathetic to her, but it wasn't always a good idea to pick a fight with Henry the eighth, basically. She and Henry did not speak for three years. Mary was not permitted to visit her mother, who was gravely ill. On when Catherine died, Mary was sad to be inconsolable. Henry the eighth, on the other hand, turned up to court the next day wearing yellow. Mary grieved alone at Johnston and Hartford share. In 1536 on Berlin was executed and Elizabeth also became illegitimate and excluded from the succession. Only about 11 days later, henry married Jane Seymour. She encouraged him to reconcile with Mary. She was one of the members of the court who were sympathetic to marry. Henry, would only say Mary if she agreed to recognize that she was illegitimate. Her parents marriage was unlawful and that he was head of the Church of England. She was also repudiate papal authority, but not all of those things would've been pretty noxious to marry. But she agree to comply as far as God on my conscience will allow. But she was eventually forced to give in to all these terms. Mary return to court on Henry granted her a household. All right. Expenses at that time included fine codes and gambling at cards. And she really did like the old card game, married the first rebellions were starring in the North of England. On one of the rebels was Mary's former Chamberlain, Lord has said he demanded that Mary be recognized as legitimate. Neither is no evidence to suggest that Mary herself have anything to do with this. The rebellion known as the pilgrimage of grass was violently suppressed on hussy was executed along with many others. And Mary would actually say several people whom she had known well and her childhood executed. In October 15th, 37 Jan gave birth to the future Edward the Sixth, and died shortly afterwards. Mary was mid godmother to her half-brother, and she was Chief Warner at James funeral. So she's very much back within the family fooled at this 0.1539, Mary was courted by Philip jig of Bavaria, but rejected him, presumably on the grinds, he was on the throne. Chrome. We'll try to negotiate a marriage between Mary and William. First Jacob cleaves, but it fell through and henry married William sister Anna Cleves, and 1540, and we know how that turns light. Cromwell fell from favor and was executed on one of the charges he felt was that he had planned to Mary. Mary. In 1541, Henry executed Margaret pool conscious of salt spray, who had been Mary's govern us. This was due to a suppose that Catholic plot involving her son Reginald. It was a botched execution, pretty unpleasant. A Margaret's had on shoulders were hacked to pieces. So not only has Mary lost someone who was once important to her boat, that has lost her? And the most horrible way. Henry's fifth wife, Catherine Howard, was executed in 1548. I'm Mary was invited to join her father for Christmas. That sounds like such a lousy sentence. Doesn't at her stepmother was killed, so she could come for Christmas. That's what she's living with thoughts, the environment. She's grown up in 1543, henry married Catherine Parr, and she worked very hard for family reconciliation. She wanted to see Henry have a better relationship with his daughters, married, and Elizabeth were restored to the line of succession after Edward undeclared, legitimate. Henry the eighth died in 1547, almost succeeded by Edward the Sixth. And Mary inherited estates and Norfolk, Suffolk on assets. I was given Huntington on Boolean after her father died. Edward on Thomas Cranmer instigated protestant reforms. So we've mentioned before at high under Henry the eighth, the pope no longer have authority, but charts worship was still Catholic. And a large part. Edward on Thomas Cranmer start to make an, a Protestant church, but Mary remains resolutely Catholic. And my own personal view on that. You can do a bit of reading around this if you like, is that she associated Catholicism with her mother, with Catherine of Aragon, the mother that she had been so cruelly separated from. So I'm sure that she did have a personal fifth as well, but it's something that she can cling onto after her mother is gone. Let's talk a little bit about married during the reign of Edward the sake. She celebrated mass and her own chapel on, she appealed to Charles the Fifth, who was her chasm, to put diplomatic pressure on AdWords to permit hard to follow her faith. During Edwards ran Mary rarely attended court night, wasn't that she didn't like Edward the SEC. We've seen high. She used to visit him when he was little and he once wrote to her, I love you most. That happened always being a bad relationship there, but at this point she feels it's better to stay away. Edward Mary, I'm Elizabeth met for Christmas 1550, and it didn't really go Wow, Marry and AdWord both shed tears at his insistence that she gave up her form of worship and add would refuse to cease demanding that Mary recount her Catholicism. He knew that she would quite likely succeed him or that was a possibility. And he didn't want her to reconvert the country to Catholicism. Basically. Edward the Sixth died of what was possibly tuberculosis. And July 1553, aged only 15. Mary didn't succeed to the throne right after that though, we know that Lady Jane Grey was the one who succeeded edward the SEC, Edward had excluded Mary from succeeding because of the whole converted the country to Catholicism thing. That also meant that he had to exclude Elizabeth because if it was going to exclude married on the grounds that she had been declared a legitimate, but you have to exclude Elizabeth to basically, he named Lady Jane Grey as his Protestant air. Mary had been summoned to her dying brothers bad side, but had been warned. It was a ruse to capture her. She fled to East idea, where she had a lot of land on the Duke of Norfolk thumb Berlant, who was the de facto leader of AdWords government on the person who was trying to capture her was unpopular after savagely extinguishing cats rebellion. We heard a little bit about that earlier. There were also many Catholics there, so she had a really solid support based on the 9th of July, she wrote to the Privy Council from counting Hall in Norfolk, demanding that she be proclaimed as quaint. And by the 12th of July, she has assembled at military force at Frog Wellington castle and Suffolk. Jan was deposed on the 19th of July on SHA-1. North and Berlin were imprisoned. And the Tower of London. Mary hawk, the popular support on she entered London triumphantly on the 3rd of August, 1553. She was accompanied by Elizabeth at her side and 800 dignitaries. One of her first acts as queen was to release prominent Catholic prisoners, including Thomas Howard, the third logic of Norfolk, who we've heard of earlier, Bishop Stephen Gardner and sarcasm Edward Court Knight, who was first RL of Devin. She didn't execute Janet first because she viewed Jan as a pawn of North and Berlant, rather than being guilty of anything in her own right. Most of the Privy Council have been involved in putting channel the throne though. So. She was finding it a little bit difficult to find reliable support at this point. She made Stephen Gardner, Bishop of Winchester on Lord Chancellor. Those were offices he held until his death in 1555. October 1553, garden are crammed Mary at Westminster Abbey. Mary who was that age 37, result to find a husband on producing air to keep the Protestant Elizabeth off the throne. Edward Courtney on Reginald pool where potential matches until Charles the fifth suggested his only legitimate son, Prince Philip of spin. Philip had a son from a previous marriage. He was heir to his European realms, New World territories. Any children they would have would have claims to the throne of England, but not to Phillips other territory's portrait of Philip by Titian, which you can see here, was sent to marry and live at 1553. Gardener on the House of Commons fair at the England would become a subsidiary of the Habsburg Empire if Mary, Mary Philip and lose status, basically an OS married to marry an Englishman, the marriage was opposed by some obeys grown so the grinds of patriotism and others on the grounds of Phillips Catholicism. So it was an unpopular suggestion and England, and it led to why it's rebellion. Led by Thomas Wyatt the Younger, who was a politician on sound of Thomas Wyatt, the poet, an ambassador. The Duke of Suffolk, who was Liddy Jin Grace, father and husband of Mary's chasm on golf daughter Frances was implicated in this rebellion. Married declared that she would summon parliament and refrain from entering into the marriage if Parliament objected. Y at Suffolk, ligen gray and her husband Guilford deadly, were all executed. Courtney, who was also implicated, was exiled. Elizabeth was accused of participation in the rebellion and was imprisoned and the tar for two months, then put under house arrest at Woodstock palace. She protested her innocence. Mary did eventually married Philip. Under the jury, doris, the property of a wife became her husband's on. So whoever married married would become the de facto king of England. And under Queen Mary's Marriage Act, Philip was to be styled King of England. He would cosine documents and acts of parliament. And he and Mary were to jointly someone parliament for Mary's lifetime. So he becomes a pretty big figure in England. However, he could not act with light Mary's consent or appoint foreigners to English political offices. And they actually wasn't really very happy about thought. But he wanted to go ahead with the marriage. Viewed the marriage as electrical. Annie hop, no romantic feelings for Mary. Unfortunately, she dead letter develop feelings for him. He wrote to his head Roy Gomez de Silva, the marriage was concluded for no flashlight consideration. But in order to remedy the disorders of this kingdom onto preserve the low countries, Charles the Fifth gave his son the crime of nipples and his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem upon his marriage, Mary and Philip mapped on the 23rd of July, 1554. I'm married two days later at Winchester Cathedral. Philip couldn't speak English, and so they can burst and a mixture of Spanish, French, and Latin. September 1554, it was believed that Mary was pregnant and she had stopped menstruating bandwidth and hard morning sickness. So all the signs seemed to be their Parliament named Philip as regent, should marry, die in childbirth. And April 1555, Elizabeth was released from rest in order to witness the impending birth. Philip had written to his brother-in-law sank. He was unsure that Mary actually was pregnant. At the end of April, rumor spread across Europe that Mary has delivered a son, but that was obviously inaccurate. May and June past and no birth took place. So you've seen Karatsuba, who was Mary's favorite Lydian we're doing, revealed her concerns that Mary was not fragmented to the French ambassador. Mary's optimum receded and July 1555, for this to have happened to add, a woman would be horrible. But with the scrape meat involved in a royal pregnancy must have been really unbearably humiliating for Mary as well as the disappointments of the pan of it. Mary believed her Fontan pregnancy was a punishment from God for having tolerated heretics. Philip left England to command his forces and Flanders against France. At that point, I'm Mary fell into a deep depression, a bite the pregnancy, but also due to her husband's departure, the Venetian Ambassador Giovanni Nikki Haley described her as extraordinarily in love with him, which was really quite sad because as we know, he didn't return those feelings. Elizabeth was ostensibly in favor at that time unromantic court until October. Philip was concerned that one of the possible successors to the English throne, Mary Queen of Scots, was betrothed to the French dough fan. Of course, he was at war with France. He suggested a marriage between Elizabeth and his hotspot cousin, Emmanuelle filbert jig of Savoy, who happened to be Catholic. Elizabeth refused and Parliament was not likely to approve the match. Now let's talk about what Mary is basically most famous for her religious prosecutions. **** her excession married, declared that she would not enforce our Catholic faith upon the people. But she imprisoned high-profile Protestants, including Thomas Cranmer, John Bradford, through a former Emperor boundary of St. Paul's, John Rogers, the Bible translator and commentator. John Hooper, Anglican Bishop of Gloucestershire. And he lots of our Bishop of Winchester on chaplain to Edward the Sixth. They were eventually executed. Mary's first parliament and October 1553 declared her parents marriage valid on abolished Edward the Sixth religious laws, just as he feared, she started to try and undo everything that he had put together in terms of the English church. She restored church doctrine to water. There have been in 1539 under Henry the ES6 articles. As we've said before, it was basically a conflict church, but with papal authority at that time, she reinstated syllabus safer protests on deprived married priests, all of the rules. Philip and married persuaded parliament to return the English church to Paypal jurisdiction. Mary and Pope Julius the third then have some difficult negotiations, but mostly around the lands and properties that have been taken from the monasteries. But they eventually reached a settlement whereby confiscated monastic property remained in the hands of its new owners. The heresy acts, which had been repealed under Henry the Eighth and Edward the Sixth, where it reinstated my babies were Maddie evil acts that have come into being and the time of Richard the Second, Mary basically use this legislation to burn people at the stake that she considered to be heretics. 800 well-to-do Protestants flat and to exile including John Fox, who later wrote a book called ox and monuments. And that was a study of Christian martyrs, especially focusing on English Protestants. And it's really John Fox. He created this idea of Bloody Mary, of Mary as tyrannical and other her own actions obviously contributed to that as well. Those who stayed in publicly profess their beliefs file, file of the heresy laws. The first executions took place over five days and February 1555. Thomas Cranmer was forced to watch bishops readily and Latimer burned at the stake. He recanted his Protestant faith at that point and re-joined the Catholic faith according to the law that should have saved his life. But Mary was pretty much determined to execute him. He withdrew his recantation quite dramatically before burning at the stake. 283 people were burned and a patch so horrifying that Philips own cleric, Alfonso de Castro, warned Philip, but such action would cause the people to revolt. Mary ruthlessly executed Protestants and heretics, anyone who descended from her own religious views until her death. This solidified anti-Catholic and anti Spanish feeling in England. On the victims became regarded as martyrs. Reginald posts out of Mary's executed governance, Margaret Pole conscious, Salzburg was made Archbishop of Canterbury in 1556. There was some things going on abroad at this time as well. The tutor conquest of Ireland continued to under Marion Philip, who began a plantation in modern-day lesion awfully. I haven't talked too much on this course. A bite. The English and Ireland. It's a huge topic in itself. And the tutor conquest violence is something that actually impacts in my everyday life because I'm Northern Irish, it's something that it's felt right to this moment in history. If you're interested in this topic, there's information about it in the final resources section of the course. January 1556, Charles the fifth abdicated on Philip became King of span. Mary, of course, becoming queen of span, Mary stayed in England while Phillip negotiated a trace with the French. And February 1556, the next month the Dudley plot was unveiled. The French ambassador to England, Antoine and Hawaii, was implicated in the plot to answer Henry Dudley, who was second cows into the executed GQ of North and Berlant to assemble troops in France to invade England. Anthropos marry, the conspirators were captured. Dudley stayed in fonts, underlie, wisely left England. Philip return to England between March and July 1557 to Saint Mary support and a renewed war with France. She was generally in favor, but her counselors advised against it. As it broke the terms of the buyers agreement, trade with fronts would be jeopardized and the economic problems from the rans of Henry the eighth on Edward the sick were still unresolved. Regional pools nephew Thomas Stafford invaded England and seized Scarborough castle and Jim 1557 with ad from the French and tending to depose Mary, which led to a declaration of war. There may have been several reasons that the French wanted to pose married, but her being married to Philip who was there. Anime is probably one of the biggest. Pope Paul the fourth was an ally of Henry the Second of France on So relations between England and the papacy were strand. The English were victorious at the Battle of San Quentin. But then in 1558, the French took Cal, England only remaining continental territory. And that was a blow to Mary's reputation. She's reputed to have said that when she died, if you kept her open, you would find the word Kali written on her heart. There were economic problems. A plant during the reign of Mary the first, there was continual wet weather resulting in flooding and famine. Imagine that continue a wet weather and England, the decline at the Antwerp cloth trade also impacted England. English will piled up unsold. I'm not caused unemployment on vagrancy to soar. England did not benefit from spans trading links with the New World. And the Spanish guarded their trade routes zealously. Any attack on those trade routes would've been piracy against a country of which Mary was queen consort. Mary's counselors followed her thumb Berlin strategy of looking for new commercial ventures and Mary grounded or royal charter to the Muscogee company. Stocks best business and those kinds of stocks based businesses would eventually fund English exploration of the New World. Explorers such as John Locke and William tyrosine tried to create links with coastal areas of Africa. These are not the days when you can just jump on a plan and be anywhere in ours, it took quite a lot of time to get as far as Africa. So creating links that far away was actually something pretty special at the time, Mary returned AdWords, Lord High treasurer William pilots, the first marker list of Winchester to overstay tax collection, but there were some issues with tax. New forms of imports were not met with new tariffs and that resulted in a loss of potential revenue. Mary's government then published a book of writs and 1550 it. Now I can hear you saying talking about tax, so boring, but we all know that when taxes go wrong, the results can be quite dramatic. Henry the Eighth and Edward the Sixth had both unfortunately debasing coinage. And that meant they had replaced the silver and the coins with Nicole making the coins on the cheap, basically without telling anybody currency could really be trusted. And Mary aim to review currency, but that didn't actually occur until after her death. Let's talk a little bit about the end of Mary's ran. Mary sadly had another Fontan pregnancy and 1557, believing the baby J. And March 1558, she wrote a well naming Philip as her heirs reagent, and the event of her death, no child was born. Mary was forced to accept that Elizabeth would succeed her. 1558, she became very ill, possibly from uterine cysts or from cancer. She died on the 17th of November 1550 to 42 apps and James's Palace. Philip wrote to his sister, I felt a reasonable regret at her death. Elizabeth succeeded Mary, and Mary had wanted to be buried with her mother, a patron, Brook cathedral, but was actually buried in Westminster Abbey and a team that she would eventually share with Elizabeth, which you can see pictured here. James the sixth of Scotland and First of England who succeeded Elizabeth. How Bayes words inscribed on their tone. Regnault consort as at Arena heat, adore memos Elisabetta at Maria Flores and stay resurrect shown as colon Sorensen realm and tomb here lie down to sleep resisters Elizabeth and Mary and hope of the resurrection. John White, the Bishop of Winchester, sad at Mary's funeral. She was a king's daughter. She was a king sister, she was a king's wife. She was a queen by the same title, a king. Also in the 17th century, she starts to become known as Bloody Mary, with writers such as John Fox depicting her as a homicidal tyrant. Modern historians question whether or not some of the views of Mary, which have perpetuated through the centuries are actually based on the alginate. Now you've heard a little bit of biter. You can make up your own mind. 36. Lady Jane Grey: Now let's tell the tragic story of England shortest ruling monarch, Lady Jane Grey, also known as Lady Jane Dudley, the queen of nine days other technically you could give or take a few days because she didn't hear about the death of Edward the Sixth, whom she succeeded for four days after he died. Jin lived from a Ron 1537 until the 12th of February 1554. Xi well stated as having been around 17 at the time of her execution, and she ran from the tenth to the 19th of July, 1553. Litigant was the eldest daughter of the Duke of Suffolk and a fronts as gray, I'm Francis was the second child of Princess marry, the daughter of Henry the seventh. So she was a great granddaughter of Henry the seventh, the first cousin once removed, of Edward the Sixth, and Elizabeth the 1st, of course, of Mary the first. It used to be thought he was born in broadcast park and Leicestershire and October 15th, 37, but it's no thought she may have been born in London in either May 15th, 37 or sometime between May 15th, 36 on February 15th, 37. And as we said, she was noted as having been in her 17th year when she was executed in Hod, two younger sisters, Catherine and Mary, and she had a humanist education and tutor times the word humanists did not mean Atheist, as it might do today. It meant that she studied the humanities. And there was also an idea within Renaissance humanism that individuals are at least partly responsible for their own destinies. Whereas in the medieval world, everything that happened to you will basically attributed to God. Jin studied Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, which she studied with John Palmer, who was a bishop, a constitutionalist on a Greek scholar, on the Italian, what she studied with Michelangelo Florio, who was a Protestant pastor and the father of the well-known Renaissance humanists, John Florio. She calls herself a staunch Protestant and she actually corresponded with the Swiss reformer Heinrich Berlin girl. Jane was actually very academic and she didn't like things like hunting parties thought wasn't her bag. She'd rather be somewhere worth her nose. And a book that was typical of the cheater is actually well, some of them liked to hunt and do sporting things as well, especially Henry the eighth, but they were all quite academic. She had a typically strict upbringing for the time, but she regarded as very harsh. And where Roger asked him, Who was the cheater to Edward the Sixth, on also to Elizabeth, the first one she was young, foreign TO reading Plato, shaken, planned for when I am in the presence, either a father or mother, whether I speak, keep silence, sit, stand or go, eat, drink, be merry or SAD, be sewing, playing dot saying or doing anything else. I must do it as it were in such wit, measure a number even as perfectly as God made the world. Or else I am so sharply TomTom, so cruelly threatened. So presently sometimes with pinches, nips on Bob's on other ways, which I will not name for the honor, I bear them that I think myself in health in February of 1547, jenn was sent to live and Thomas More's high salt on Thomas same or it was the uncle of Edward the Sixth, the brother of Jane Seymour, and also the brother of AdWords same or the GQ of Somerset, who was the Lord protector. Jan acted as Catherine pars attendant when she lived and Thomas's ISOS because he had recently married the wetter of Henry the eighth. They all lived together at suddenly castle and Gloucestershire. Actually the young Elizabeth the First, also ended up joining that high soiled. Catherine died following childbirth and September 1540 it on Jan was chief mourners at her funeral, and she continued to live and Thomas More's heist for another two months. Then he was arrested for treason and eventually executed. Jane's father was interrogated as part of the prosecution that he escaped serious trouble. He proposed Qian as a wife for the Lord protector. Adwords say more, but that didn't really come to anything. And Jane was a valid state patrol toward guilt for Dudley, who is son of the jig of North thumb Berlin, and he was the new leader of the Regency console. They married on the 25th of 91553 at Durham high sand. It was a kind of triple ceremony. And at the same time, Jane, sister Catherine married the Earl of Pembroke and Lord Guilford sister Catherine married Henry Hastings, air of the Arlo of Huntington. A very big event that day. When Henry, they have introduced a third succession, reinstating his daughters marry and Elizabeth and the line of succession, he excluded the Scottish Royal family descended from his sister Margaret. But in the event that has own children should die and not being able to inherit, he did include the arrows of his youngest sister Mary, and that included Jan, who was her granddaughter. Although for some reason he excluded Francis, who was Jan's mother, AdWords the sixth named Lady Jane on her heirs male and his device for the succession in Jane in 1553. So at first it was only male heirs of Jan who were going to be allowed to succeed, eventually a large in herself to succeed him. That was possibly under the influence of the jig north on Berlant because Jan Waals, his daughter-in-law, it would've been very advantages for him for her to assume the throne. On those days. The husband of acquainting fragments became king that would've made his son King. It was eventually named herself in the succession on, on the 9th of July, four days after Edward staff, she was informed she had become queen of England. She later claimed to have accepted only with reluctance. The 10th of July, she entered the Tower of London. And that was customary for monarchs are within correlation. And she was proclaimed Queen of England, France, and Ireland. She refused to name her husband does King though, which would have required an act of parliament. She plans to make him Jacob Clarence instead. Northumbria needed to stop Mary Tudor from gathering support, ideally by capturing her. On hearing of Edward staff, Mary had left Johnston and went to East and glia to rally her followers. Actually the guys that Horrible Histories put it very well when they said the jake of north on Berlant chest after Mary, but she raised an army and wallet Tim about specifically what happens, succinctly put on the 14th of July, Northumbria and set art with troops to capture her. And on the 19th of July, the Privy Council changed allegiance. Opera claimed Mary as Kwame. Not we don't completely know why they did this, but historians have traditionally presumed this was because Mary was the one who had popular support. She was the daughter of Henry the eighth, the half-sister of Edward the Sixth. It seems likely that Henry fits Alan, the 19th part of our adult was behind this code, having twice Spain detained by the Jacob Northumbria lens and having an extra grind with him as being an ally of the executed Somerset. On the 19th of July, 1553, Jen was imprisoned and the Tower of London and the gentleman jailers apartments. Guilt for Dudley was detained at the Beauchamp tar, also in the Tower of London, north thumb Berlin was executed on the 22nd of August, 1553. Thoughts, what happens if you try to capture marry the first and September parliament declared Mary the rightful Queen on denied Jan, as I use Zach bar. She and her husband were charged with high treason. Us where the Archbishop Thomas Cranmer on to have Dudley brothers, Noah, Thomas Cranmer really would be a target for the very Catholic married The first because he had been a big part of Edward the Sixth protestant reforms. The trial of all these defendants took place on the 13th of November 1553 at Guild Hall in the city of London. The commission was chaired by Thomas Howard, the third week of Norfolk. Remember we talked about him before he had spent the reign of Edward the Sixth and the Tower of London, and he's free with an ax to grind. Answer. Thomas white, the Lord Mayor of London. All the defendants were found guilty and sentenced to death. Jan having signed documents as J and the queen was used as evidence of her guilt, she was sentenced to be burned alive on Tar hill or beheaded as the queen places. Burning was actually the traditional punishment for female travelers. The imperial ambassador and form Charles with them easily Roman emperor, that geons life walls to be spared and at first married, did decide to spare her. But a rebellion known as why it's rebellion soon broke out. Thomas Wyatt the younger and others opposed Mary's marriage to the very Catholic Philip the second of span, who was a key mover on the European saying Jan's father and his two brothers joined this rebellion and that pretty much sued James fit as married, decided to implement her sentence on Dudley sentence as well, Jan was given a three-day reprieve to convert to Catholicism. She declined, but she actually became friends with the price that Mary sent to convert her job back at him. And he walked with her to the scaffold. On the morning of the 12th of February, 1554, guilt for Dudley was beheaded at Tar hill, and very cruelly, his corpse was taken on a card past Jan's window where she saw his body and cry like, Oh, Gilbert Guilford. She was then taken out onto targeting the head of the execution. Didn't really go very well on anonymous chronicler, which later and forms the Holland shot Chronicle, which is one of our case sources for this period of history, quoted her execution speech. Good people, I am Come hither to die. By a law. I am condemned to the same. The fact and data against the Queen's highness walls unlawful the consenting there onto by me. But touching the procurement and desire, they're off by me and all my behalf. I do wash my hands thereof. An innocent say before God, the face of you good Christian people this day. She's saying, yes, I broke the law, but it wasn't intentional. I am innocent of any wrongdoing. And that was actually unusual. You can see an execution speeches that we've coded before that people mostly praised the monarch who was executing them, mostly because they wanted to spare their family. But in James KSR husband was already dead, her father-in-law was already dead. She then recited some 51 in English, and that was a real show off Protestantism. And then she gave her gloves on handkerchief to her mid, the executioner asked for her forgiveness and she gave her forgiveness onset. I pray you dispatch me quickly, and then a bite her head. She asked, Will you take it off before I lay me down on the execution or sad? No, madam. She then blindfolded herself on, couldn't see the block. And so she panicked, sort of failing a wry and trying to find where the block walls, which must have been a very pathetic sight. This, this young girl looking for the execution block and she started asking what should I do, whereas it and so, Sir Thomas bridges, the deputy left-handed of the tar, helped her to find the block. With her head on the block, she said, Lord into thy hands, I commend my spirit. Nih, those were Christ's last words on the cross. I'm christ was basically killed for a crime committed. There was an intention and saying that she was fortunately killed with only one boxplot. X0 and Guilford Dudley are buried in unmarked graves and the Chapel of some Pedro have ventricular at the Tower of London. Jen's father was executed 11 days later on the 23rd of February 1550, for her mother married again on was pardoned by married the first unpermitted to live at court with her other two daughters. Jan was regarded as a Protestant martyr for centuries, featuring prominently and Foxe's Book of Martyrs by the English historian John Fox. 37. Elizabeth I: Now let's talk about one of the most venerated monarchs that England has ever produced. Elizabeth the first, known after the defeat of the Spanish Armada as Gloriana. Here she is played by some of our most respected actresses, dim Judi Dench. Of course, the Black Adder incarnation applied by Miranda Richardson, not in blackout or she was quite a spoiled, petulant character. I think that has some historical basis and that she became queen on how a lot of par at the edge of Ohmae, 25, so older than her brother walls when he became king at nine though. A more recent version of Elizabeth with Margot Robbie and the movie of Mary Queen of Scots. Here we have Helen Marin, Cate Blanchett, of course. Glenda Jackson. What is it? A byte, Elizabeth, the First that they're hopping so many modern retellings of her story. In part, it could be because she never married, never married, and she didn't give up her part to anybody else. She retained personal autonomy. That can make her a bit of a feminist icon. Other, there are several possible reasons why she might've made this decision. As we're going to say. Elizabeth the first was known as Gloriana. Great tagline to have their good queen, bad-ass. A way that people often refer to her and the virgin queen because she never married or produced an error. When she inherited the throne, England was in a bit of a mass. Her father had bankrupted England with expensive wars onto he had caused a lot of political and social instability by changing its religion in order to marry her mother. Berlin, her brother had gone down a path of reform but not lived long enough to see it through. And then her sister had instigated religious persecution that had widened gap and society. So she inherited a lot of problems. And England was not European par the time that Elizabeth the first came to the throne, but it certainly walls by the time she laughed it. I'm, that's not to say she did everything perfectly or she wasn't beset by problems, as we'll see. She was the last Tudor Monarch. She lived from the 7th of September 1533 to the 21st of March 16th, O3. She was the daughter of Henry. They hit on Berlin, and she was only actually 2.5 when her mother was executed. So it's hard to know what memories she could possibly have had of ambulance. She was imprisoned for a year during the reign of Mary, the first spanning two months of that year in the tar of London. When Elizabeth succeeded Mary, she pledged to rule by good counsel and relied on many advisors, the most prolific bank, William Castle, who later became Lord Barley. So a lot of her predecessor as well. They acted in their own self and trust. Henry, the eighth active site of the motivation of wanting an air, married, the first acted out of the trauma that had happened to her when she was young. And Elizabeth dead half to actin or own self-interest. And she had to basically keep yourself alive because a lot of people plotted against her. But she did take Console more on, she thought more a bite, the impact of our actions on England. She at 1, called herself married to England, and that made her a more effective monarch than her predecessors. Early in her ranch, he established a Protestant Church of England of what she was supreme governor. And as we've mentioned, she was never married despite many potential suitors, both English and foreign. And she was succeeded by James the sixth of Scotland and the First of England, who was the son of Mary Queen of Scots on one of the most infamous things that Elizabeth did was to have Mary Queen of Scots executed. And we're going to hear a little bit about that later. One of her mottoes was the DOS attack, how I see and I keep quiet. So she's a savvy woman. She was much more moderate than her father and siblings, especially when it came to changes and when legend during her reign. She avoided religious prosecutions. She's famous for Hero and the defeat of the Spanish Armada, hence Gloriana. Others, she was mostly represented by entering into European wars, saying the disaster that have been for her father on what he had done to the realm. Economically. The arts flourished during her reign, and that's why we have this notion of the Elizabethan era. We have some of the most famous writers of English around that time, Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe on Edmund Spenser and his famous poem, The Faerie Queene references Elizabeth and so much Did she like it, but she gave him a pension. No different interpretations of Elizabeth interest in the arts. If you read about her, some seem to think of her as a patron of the arts, other sites she didn't really patronized the arts that much. But one thing we know that she did do was to give the Pension to Spencer. Certainly, lot of Shakespeare's writing is m dot. Quite frankly, sucking up to the cheater raging. Maritime exploration was something else that was happening in this period of history with explorers such as Sir Francis Drake on Sir Walter Raleigh. And we're starting to have a concept of America in Europe at that time, the new world. Her 44 years on the throne query answered relative stability after the very short runs of Edward the Sixth, I'm Mary the first. Elizabeth was born in Greenwich Palace and named after her grandmother's Elizabeth of York and tar, maternal grandmother Elizabeth Howard's later Elizabeth Berlin, the Duchess of wheelchair. The time of her birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to the English throne. Mary having been declared a legitimate. So I don't think everyone she was related to. It could have been thrilled that she had arrived. Basically, she was baptized on the 10th of September, 1533. And again, the choice of godparents with the Royal child is very telling. Her parents were Thomas Cranmer, the Archbishop of Canterbury and religious reformer henry Courtney Jacob Exeter. Elizabeth Stafford, the Duchess of Norfolk. I'm Margaret Walton, the Dodger March in S of Dorset on Boleyn. Her mother was executed on the 19th of May, 15th, 36, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and removed from the line of succession. So what happens to this tiny little girl? Not that she's no longer heir presumptive to the throne. Henry married Jane Seymour only 11 days later, and she died after the birth of the future Edward the Sixth and October 15th, 37. Still very tiny. There's a lot of family instability around Elizabeth. She was placed in AdWords high, sold. They had to do something with her. I'm Margaret Bryan, Elizabeth's first governors, coal tar as Toward a child and as gentle of conditions is ever I knew in my life. So she's a sweet, charming little girl. Elizabeth, hot, incredible social skills. She was a consummate communicator. She left behind some very famous speeches that prove that he or she is showing that tangency right from early childhood. Catherine chump or known later known as cat Ashley, was Elizabeth second governance on her friends until her death in 1565. And she taught Elizabeth French, Dutch, Italian, and Spanish. Because of course, if your royal, you really have to learn languages. And Elizabeth Excel. William Grendel, who was a graduate of St. John's College, Cambridge on walls, a protege of Roger ask them, Edward the Sixth cheater, oversaw her reading and writing in English, Latin, Italian, French, and Greek. It's 12. She translated her stepmother Catherine Parr is prayers, meditation and to Italian, Latin, and French as a New Year present for her father. And that would've been something very pleasing to her father. What he wanted for his children was for them to be educated. She translated classical works through our life. That's actually what she did for fun. Didn't have Netflix and those days. And including tax by Plato, Cicero and Tacitus. And in 2019, a translation of Tacitus that was found in the Lambeth Palace library, the palace of the Archbishop of Canterbury was confirmed as being by Elizabeth. The first imagine how exciting thought would be to discover something line Ron's, your bookshelf had been pens by Elizabeth the first Grendel died in 1548, and Elizabeth was educated by Edward's children, whom we've mentioned before. Roger, ask them, remember, we said earlier that he believed that what differentiated human beings from animals will speech. It was a gift from God and so to speak or write per laid was shocking. And Elizabeth seems to have taken that thinking on board and cheap becomes a consummate language user. He believed that education should be engaging. So she's not just learning by rote. Here we see the young elizabeth by the time her education finished and 1550. And Elizabeth was one of the most educated women of her generation, very much an intellectual. In addition to her formal language training, she had also learned to speak Welsh, Cornish on sculpts, Gallic. Not at that point, no one was sure that she was going to grow up and be queen. But if you weren't going to be quaint, speaking the languages of your neighbors on subjects was pretty useful. In 1603, the Venetian Ambassador remark that she possessed languages so thoroughly that HE appeared to be her mother tongue. Henry the IV died in 1547 on Edward the Sixth became king. Catherine Parr, who was Henry's widow, married Thomas seaboard, first bouncy more subtly. Who was Jane Seymour, his brother, and they fostered Elizabeth in their home. She was 15 at the time, and she did not have a good experience. Thomas behaved inappropriately towards Elizabeth, visiting her bedroom at night and his mic gone, tickling her and slapping her buttocks. She was very unhappy about this. She used to get up early and made sure her meds were in attendance to protect herself from his advances. Catherine Parr not only didn't stop this behavior, she was complicit in it. What's tickling Elizabeth and holding her dawn while see more black dress into pieces. Her black trans presumably being her morning garment for her father. Par then called Elizabeth and see more in an embrace, and Elizabeth was sent ICT of the highest hold. This must have been really horrible for the young Elizabeth's. She'd actually being quite fond of Catherine Parr. Catherine Parr had done a lot to reconcile Henry the eighth with his daughters. She would have been trusted and she was someone whom intellectually, Elizabeth looked up till your answer to experience this situation just must have been really horrible. Her experience and Thomas famous horses are thought to have affected Elizabeth for the rest of her life and could be a reason why she wouldn't marry and she wouldn't give control over herself on her body to a man. Apartheid on the 5th of September 1548, following childbirth on same or plant to Mary Elizabeth, which was really going to lift his own status. Ashley encouraged Elizabeth to reciprocates, to comfort Thomas and his sorrow. Other Elizabeth replied that he was not sad enough at her stepmothers death to require comfort. I know that we said earlier in the video about Henry the eighth that the teenage Elizabeth was happy to go along with us. There are different interpretations of that. It could be because she was basically the victim of abuse and affair. She wanted to go along with the abuser. And because of the incredible instability of her childhood and people being executed all over the place. She didn't like to make a fossa. It's very hard to know all these centuries later. Thomas Seymour was arrested and imprisoned at the Tower of London. And January 1549, he was accused of plotting to depose his brother Edward Seymour Jacob Somerset as protector, marry Edward the Sixth and Larry Jane Grey together and Mary Elizabeth himself. Elizabeth remains silent on the subject from her new home and Hopfield highs and heart for chair. Quite a wise way to go her interrogator. So Robert turret stated, I do see in her face that she is guilty, but he couldn't make her speak. Seymour was beheaded on the 20th of March, 1549. What happened to Elizabeth during the reign of Mary the first? Well, we've saved that she spent part of it and the Tower of London. Edwards is sick, had excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the succession unmanned Lady Jane Grey as his heir. He hadn't excluded Elizabeth and anti personal grinds, but he didn't want Mary to turn the country Catholic, as we've heard. And he excluded are the grounds that she had once been declared a legitimate. So we had Elizabeth, so he couldn't really exclude one with I excluded the other is what happened there. Jan was of course, deposed by Mary and only nine days, Mary rode triumphantly to London with Elizabeth, thought her side. When Mary origin Elizabeth, atomic mass, she pretty much had to conform. So Elizabeth lives and fair of her sister. Around the time of why it's rebellion, people began to look to Elizabeth as a possible replacement for Mary are Protestant queen. And after the rebellion was suppressed, Elizabeth was interrogated and incarcerated at the Tower of London on the 15th of March, 1554. Not a good place to find yourself. Elizabeth may not have conspired with the rabbits, but we do know that she was approached by them. We don't really know hai that interaction went. Charles the fifth ambassador and the Holy Roman Emperors Ambassador Simon Reinhardt told Mary that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived. Because whether or not she actually colluded she was a figurehead for the rebels. The chancellor Stephen Gardner tried to have Elizabeth put on trial, but William project on others argued that there was no evidence against Elizabeth. She was moved to high harassed and the custody of Henry bedding failed to privy counselor. And she was moved from the Tower of London. Crowds cheered her along her way. And for most of her life, Elizabeth enjoyed and credible popularity with the public. On the 17th of April, 1555, she was someone to witness the birth of Mary's expect a child. This was an old situation for Elizabeth because if Mary on the child died, Elizabeth would be proclaimed queen. But if they survived, she would move farther from the line of succession. But their walls, no child. It was becoming clear at this point that Elizabeth would one day succeed Mary, King, Philip, Mary's husband, the king of spin, him to a friend Elizabeth because he believed she was a preferable successor, the Mary Queen of Scots, who also had a claim to the English throne, but who had been raised in the French Court and was betrothed to the French DO phone. And he was of course, at war with France when he fell seriously ill. And 1558, Philip sent the kind of barrier to Hopfield has to consult with Elizabeth. By October 1558, Elizabeth was beginning to plan her government. Other, Mary had not yet died on the 6th of November at Mary formerly acknowledged Elizabeth as her air, which was not something that she had really wanted to happen because of her strong conflict. Fifth, unknowing that Elizabeth would be more likely to embrace Protestantism. Mary died on the 17th of November, 1558, and Elizabeth excited to the throne aged 25. This is what she said when she accepted the throne. My lord's, the law of nature moves me to sorrow for my sister. The burden that has fallen upon me makes me amazed and yet considering I am God's creature or Dan to obey his appointment, I will there to yield, desiring from the bottom of my heart that I may have assistance of his grades to be the minister of his heavenly well, in this office, NOI committed to me as I am but one body naturally considered, though by his permission, a body politic to govern social. I desire you all to be assistant to me that I, with my ruling anew with your service, may make a good account, Joe mighty God, and leave some comfort to our posterity on Earth. I mean to direct all my actions by good advice and consult. So she's saying two very important things here. The medieval concept of the body politic is coming through. The person of Elizabeth, represents the whole of England and enhance she used the Royal way. She always refer to herself as way when writing. Then she sang, but she will take good advice on console. She's promising not to baby autocrats that her father and her sister, where an essence. Elizabeth was hugely popular with the public and her Accession was celebrated with pathogens and orientations, some distinctly Protestant and married the first time, of course, barn and a lot of products can stop the stick. If you wear a Protestant, you could probably breathe a sigh of relief with Elizabeth come to the throne. She engaged graciously with well-wishers, which grew her popularity. She was crying to the 15th of January 1555 at Westminster Abbey. On the date was actually chosen as propitious by her astrologer, John Day, who was also the court astronomer as well as astrologer. There was some uncertainty at the start of her ran j to the possibility of Catholic rebellions at home, Catholic hostility abroad. The question of her marriage. Let's talk a little bit about Elizabeth and the church on her approach to religion because she had inherited a rail mass after the Rue of Mary the first. Elizabeth had been educated as a Protestant and her father had a bound on the paper, say, in order to marry her mother. In the eyes of the Catholic Church, she was a legitimate, her personal religious feelings are debated. She was certainly a Christian, but others, she was supreme governor of the Protestant Church of England. She kept Catholic symbols such as crucifixes, and she sometimes deviated from Protestant doctrine. For example, she didn't view ceremonies as being essentially important. She opted for a pragmatic approach to the issue of the growing religious divide which has fomented and the rans of her father and her siblings. The Church of England viewed her as having been retroactively illegitimate, whereas the Catholic Church viewed her as illegitimate from birth. So Protestantism was a better option for her. It was more likely to shore up her own personal position. She knew there was a threat from continental Catholics though, who viewed the English church is hierarchical, that Protestants had suffered a lot under Mary. She opted to go Protestant light, as we might phrase it today, in order to appease Protestants whilst not alienating Catholics. Other, the one group, but she wouldn't tolerate where radical Puritans, him, she saw as extremists. And the air hoped for reforms just went too far. And Elizabeth VA, and we know that around this period in history, Puritans start leaving England for the new world. In 1559, Parliament began to establish a Protestant church with a monarch audits had which contained Catholic elements such as vast months. She's trying to strike a balance here. The House of Commons block-based proposals, but they were opposed in the House of Lords, especially by the bishops sitting in the Lord's, oh dear what she gonna date. Fortunately for Elizabeth, many bishoprics happened to be vacant at the time, including counterbore. And that was very much to her advantage because then the opposition and the Lord was ICT voted on. She got her way. Elizabeth became supreme governor of the Church of England. As I record this, Elizabeth the second is the current supreme governor of the Church of England. But she didn't have the title of supreme head, which at the time was considered a controversial title for a woman. The new act of supremacy became law and 1559 on public officials swore an oath of loyalty to Elizabeth as leader of the church. The heresy laws which Mary the first brought back into effect were repealed. And that put an end to religious prosecutions. The active uniformity met attendance at church on use of an adaptive version of the 1800s z2 Book of Common Prayer. Compulsory. But if you didn't adhere to this, the penalties were actually not very harsh than were quite lenient. This is not so much a religious law as a matter of shoring up the tutor row of Elizabeth, the first Elizabeth's lack of a husband has been very much commented on for centuries, but she had several surgeries on some of them. She did actually quite like It's quite interesting when you talk about Elizabeth the First, you're very much talking about what she did for the country and basically how she went by her job, her career, if you can call monarchy at career. Whereas with her predecessors that personal lives is very much what comes to the fore. But Elizabeth did have a personal life. She was just a bit more savvy about conducted that Elizabeth was never married or produced an heir. On the reasons are much discussed. She may have wanted to preserve her autonomy because whomever she married would become king of England de facto. Or she may have been traumatized by Thomas Seymour, as we discussed earlier. But she considered suitors until she was a byte 50 years old. The wrong choice of husband could provoke political instability or our votes, such as Wyatt's rebellion, when Mary had decided to marry Philip, and she didn't want to see a repeat of that. It was quite hard to try and create some stability. And the environment she had inherited, didn't want to do anything to rock the boat. Robert Dudley, first Earl of Leicester, have been Elizabeth, his childhood friend on chief, fell in love with him and 1559, his wife, Emma, was ill and it was believed that Elizabeth antenna to marry Dudley FMI died. Elizabeth had a bevy of foreign suitors who were not really happy about the situation and thank gossip, that's such a marriage would be unpopular and England, AMI, deadly, rather conveniently fell down the stairs and died. And September 1668, it was ostensibly an oxidant, but some suspected Dudley off causing his wife staff so that he could marry the queen. William Tesla and other prominent advisors to Elizabeth med, their disapproval, Claire. And she doesn't just do what would have made her happy she doesn't marry. Dudley. Rumors spread, but the nobility would revolt if she did. So she puts the country first out also, well to keep yourself alive, obviously, revolts don't tend to end up well if the rebels, when sadly remains a potential match for Elizabeth, followed by another decade. And she was really jealous when he flirted with other weapon, even when she decided not to marry him. She made him Earl of Leicester. And 1564, he married again in 1578 on Elizabeth was pretty paved by it up, and she had a lifelong hatred of his new wife, lattice. Notice the PR woman probably suffered enough from bank called lattice. Then the queen doesn't like her last or died shortly after the Armada was defeated in 1588, Elizabeth died. A letter from him marked his last letter, was found in her most personal belongings, and this is a copy of the actual latter here in the bottom right. March proposals were K2, Elizabeth's foreign policy. She turned done Phillip of span, and 1539, who of course had been her brother-in-law, married to marry the first for several years, she considered the proposal of eric the 14th of Sweden, henry the IP, that actually considered marrying her to GQ adults of Denmark. And she goes with thoughts. Danish theme of the Jacob Somerset had wanted a marriage between Elizabeth and France. Frederick, later, Frederick the second of Denmark. He proposed to Elizabeth and 1559 to contract the Swedish kings interest. For several years, she entered into negotiations with the arch Charles of Austria, who was Phillips cousin. She considered to Valois princes, henry Folger, later Henry the third on Francis Jacob Golgi, the highest Levallois, of course, being the French royal house. The latter proposal was to form an alliance against the Spanish and the southern Netherlands. Not everything that was going on in Europe was related to this conflict between span on fronts and Elizabeth how to position herself somewhere on the Spanish control the southern Netherlands, they might be able to invade England. Was her fair elizabeth war of frog airing that she had been sent by the Jacobins and j, I'm not suggested to those around her that she was quite serious about this engagement for a time. In 1563, Elizabeth told and imperial envoy though, beggar woman on single far rather than Queen unmarried. So as a person cheap valued her autonomy. When Elizabeth caught smallpox, though, the succession issue became a pressing concern and parliament, as we've seen, succession crisis lead to grit and stability and a state. The queen was arched Marie autonomous air and kiss. Civil war broke out when she died. She refused to do either. In fact, in April 1563, she pro ROBDD parliament meeting, she used royal prerogative to end the session early. Right now and 2022, as I record this, the Monarch still has royal prerogative the right to. And onStart parliament, parliament did not reconvene until 1566 when she needed to raise taxes. She told an unruly parliament that I will never break the word of a prince spoken in a public place for ulnar sick. Therefore, again, I say I will marry as soon as I can. Conveniently, if golf take him not away that I mind Mary or myself or else some other grids let happen. She's giving herself and she said, yes, I'll Murray and I'll do what you want. But she's giving ourselves some escape closes. Senior government figures came to accept that she would never marry our NAM and air by 1570. Well, it's sessile began trying to find a solution to the succession issue. Obviously, he couldn't discuss it openly with Elizabeth, who was just refusing to address the matter. So we had to do this behind closed doors by refusing to NAM and Elizabeth may have been trying to stop the possibility of a coup though, since she herself had been the figurehead for opponents of Mary the first regime. So she was afraid of she named on air that people would rally behind that person and she herself would be deposed. A cult of virginity developed around Elizabeth G, to her being married to England and the public perception. This count compared her to the Virgin Mary. And poets and writers created iconography around her virginity. And it is possible that Virginia in the United States was named after her. She told the House of Commons and 1555. In the end, this shall be for me sufficient that a marble stone shall declare that equation. Having rents such and such a time lived and died, a virgin. She professed to be married to England. Some of her Catholic opponents accused her of being a sham virgin, and that was quite serious oxidative because she embraced the idea of the body politic, hard person represented England. So to defile her Baldry and tutor sensibility, whilst to defile the whole nation of England to show disrespect to England. Henry the fourth of France, sad, but one of the great questions of European politics walls whether Queen Elizabeth be met or no. She had hod Lord Dudley is bad. Chambers move next to hers. And 15591587, a man who went by the name Arthur Dudley was arrested for espionage on the coast of span. He claimed to be the son of Elizabeth on Robert Dudley. And what's the right age to have been born when Elizabeth had an illness in 1561, which caused her body to swell. He was interrogated and Madrid by Francis ankle field, who was an exiled English Catholic aristocrat who had become secondary to fill up a span. Ankle field decided that the claim amounts to nothing. The Spanish concurred, although Philippa great to keep Arthur Dudley and custody, modern historians believe it to be very unlikely the Elizabeth could have concealed the pregnancy because she was so closely scrutinized. Let's talk about a really infamous incident and the reign of Elizabeth, the first her execution of Mary Queen of Scots in 1569. A plot developed to free Mary Queen of Scots. She had been imprisoned. A move between castles and England since fleeing Scotland, England on the 15th of May, 1578. And she'd had to flee Scotland because Mary and her third husband, Jim's Hepburn forth airlift Caldwell, were suspected of the murder of Mary second husband, Henry Stuart, Lord darling. She had expected Elizabeth to help her regain her throne because Elizabeth was a sister queen, God's anointed Queen. Elizabeth wanted to ascertain if there was any truth and the accusations. The rebels plan to marry Mary to Thomas Howard, the fourth Duke of Norfolk, on her own the throne of England, the Norfolk, of course bang, a very staunchly Catholic family as we've seen. Pope Pius the fifth believe, because you have been successful at 1, he issued a papal Bu, colleague, Elizabeth, the pretended Queen of England, and the servant of crime. She wants to be excommunicated as a heretic. Subjects absolved of allegiance to her, and Catholics who obeyed her were threatened with excommunication. Parliament retaliated by, against Catholics, but Elizabeth just didn't want to go down that road. And so she intervened in 1581, attempting to convert English subjects to Catholicism with the intention of breaking their allegiance to Elizabeth, was declared to be tracing, was made punishable by death. Converting to Catholicism or converting others to catholicism wasn't in itself a crime. It was only if you're real intention was to undermine Elizabeth regime. Basically, missionary priests were sent from continental Europe to reconvert England to Catholicism covertly in the 1880s. And many of these were executed under this law and became part of a martyrdom called, when you think about it, it's very hard to prove that you're just trying to convert people and disprove that you're doing it to dethrone Elizabeth. Elizabeth spy master. So Francis Walsingham closely watched Mary and gathered evidence against her other Elizabeth at first resisted calls from Mary's execution. For one thing, Mary was a relative anti, corresponded frequently, though they haven't met. She felt that she knew Mary and Mary was a sister queen, and that was the other thing. She felt it would be a really BAD example to set. To execute a quaint, but that's what creates a dangerous precedent. Lattice of Mary's relating to the bobbing can plot a 1586 where her downfall, one of these letters that Mary had consented to Elizabeth's execution on, Elizabeth could not afford to ignore that. Mary didn't recognize the authority of an English court to try her, though as she was queen of another state, she also argued that she couldn't be guilty of treason against Elizabeth. I. She wasn't Elizabeth subject. Nonetheless, Mary was by habit at fathering guy castle North Hampton Chair on the eighth of February, 1587. At the time of her death, Mary was 44 and have been and Elizabeth's custody for 18 on a half years. Elizabeth deeply regret with Mary's death and sad. She had never meant to send the signed execution warrant, living her Secretary, William Davidson, for implementing it with I turned knowledge. Robert wink failed TO was present at the time of the execution, left us with these reflections on at night. This is all a byte. Mary's little dog that wouldn't leave her, that was under her skirts when she was executed. If you don't like gross things, I think maybe you should skip this slide. If that's okay. Then one of the executioners pulling off her gardeners, a spy, her little dog, which was crept under her cloths, which could not be gotten forth by force. Yet afterwards would not depart from the dead corpse. But Kim and lay between her head on her shoulders, which being imbued with her blood, was carried away and washed as all things else not have any blood was either burned or washed clean. And the execution or sent away with money for their face, not having any one thing that belonged onto her. And so every man being commanded the whole except the sheriff and his men, she was carried by them up into a grit chamber, lying ready for the surgeons to embalm her. After Mary's body was embalmed, it was taken to patriarch Cathedral. It was zoomed on the orders of her son, James, the sixth of Scotland, and First of England. And she was reburied and the Henry the seventh chapel at Westminster Abbey, She's actually buried right opposite Elizabeth and Mary. And it's very much worthwhile going to see their teams. Let's talk a little bit about Elizabeth's foreign policy and where she positioned England and Europe, basically, guns hopping bankrupted by Henry Bates wars. And so Elizabeth pursued on defensive policy when it came to foreign affairs. They exception was the occupation of Le Havre in 1562 to three, Let's look as Huguenots, protestant allies defect to join the Catholics on retake the port. That did not go well. Around the same time Sir Francis Drake read Spanish ports in fleets. Elizabeth hadn't liked him after his 157078, a circumnavigation of the globe. He is a famous explorer. Elizabeth has little control over English pirates who were reading various seas and where basically outlaws. In 1585, Elizabeth sent English trips to add Dutch Protestants rebelling against Philip the Second, her former brother-in-law, the King of Spain. This hot and off to the 1800s for alliance between Philip and the French Catholic League blocked Henry the third of fronts is ability to control Phillips dominion and the Netherlands. And that meant that Spanish influence was there for extended along the coast of France, which made an invasion of England possible. So Elizabeth's mind, best as defense of the Duke of Parma, the seats up in 1585 on the Dutch and English were forced to respond. This led to the Treaty of non such an August 15, 85, and which Elizabeth promised military aid to the Dutch, began the Anglo Spanish War, which lasted until after Elizabeth died at, went on until 1604 and Elizabeth died in 1603. The English forces were led by Elizabeth old flim, the MLF luster on some conflict kilobytes between them. She's secretly plan to send troops but negotiate with the Spanish behind closed doors. And she began these talks only days after last year's or rivaled. Lesser was paved when Elizabeth instructed him to avoid at all costs any decisive action with the anime. So he's ostensibly there to fight the animate, but she's telling him not to. He accepted the post of Governor-General from the Dutch stitch general their legislature. And Elizabeth walls for urea. She saw this as a Dutch ploy to force her into the role of sovereign of the Netherlands, which would have worsened her conflict with spin. This was her more than Tarsus, latter two last or we could never have imagined talk, we not seen it full ICT and experience that a man raised up by ourselves and extraordinarily favored by us above any other subject of this land would have been so contemptible, assort broken our commandment, and it calls that so greatly touches us in honor. Therefore, our express pleasure and commandment is that all delays and excuses laid apart. You do presently uphold the judy of your allegiance, a bay and fulfill whatsoever the bearer hereof shall direct you to do in our name, wherefore feel you're not, as you will answer the contrary at your upmost parallel. She had her scolding letters read a lot and the Dutch Council of State, humiliating glass stir her secret talks with the Spanish also undermined his position in the Netherlands. Elizabeth repeatedly refused to send the money and supplies she had promised to her starving trips. The whole thing starts to unravel. The campaign failed unless dirt resigned his command and December 1557. Now let's talk about the infamous episode of the Spanish Armada, which earned Elizabeth the title Gloriana. So Francis Drake undertook a voyage against Spanish ports and vessels and the Caribbean in 1556 to seven, he destroyed the Spanish fleet at codec, which had been intended for the enterprise of England. And that was an attack on England aimed at restoring papal authority, sanctioned by Pope Sixtus the fifth. Philip the second of span, had decided to make war on England. On the 12th of July 15, 58th, the Spanish Armada set sail carrying an invasion force from the Netherlands to England, South East Coast. The original aim of the Armada had been to put Mary Queen of Scots on the throne. But after her execution, Philip plant to put his daughter and Fanta Isabella on the English throne. Isabella bang, the Spanish equivalent of Elizabeth. Interestingly, 38. The House of Stuart: Now we're going to talk about the royal house that replaced the highest of cheater or succeeded the highest of cheater, the royal hearts of Stewart. It's another dramatic period and British history, have we seen anything else so far with ratchet side, revolts on Romanticism decide coming with the execution of Charles the First by parliament, the only British came to be executed. Revolts, a plantae and romanticism when it comes to the story of Bonnie Prince Charlie and the Battle of collagenase, which if you've seen the TV show Icelander, you'll know all the bite. It's a story that still haunts us today. The highest obscurity has two different spellings, as you can see here. And here is its insignia simper atom always the same. It was originally the Scottish clans do it on the royal house of Scotland. The name comes from the title highest heard of Scotland, which was held by its progenitor Walter fits Alan and around 1180. So this is a very old established ties. Its first Scottish monarch was Robert the second, who ran from 1371 to 1398. So the students have been in charge and Scotland, right from the medieval period. It was spelled Stewart's with an AWS until Mary Queen of Scots, who had been raised in France, adopted a French version of the spelling. In 1503, James the fourth of Scotland married Margaret chitter, the daughter of Henry the seventh of England and the sister of Henry the eighth. Of course. This united the royal houses of Scotland and England. Jim's the fourths grit grandson became James the sixth of Scotland on the First of England. And this product might be union of crimes, but it didn't bring a bite. I United Kingdom at that point, that Scotland remains separate states, were their own administrations, but a shared monarch. James also wrote Ireland. This short tenure was interrupted by a Republican and drag them after Charles the first was executed and 1649, that lasted for 11 years until 1660 under a guy called Oliver Cromwell, who was not a party person. He was very much a Puritan. He bombed the theatre, he bombed Christmas. Then when Charles the second came to the throne and the restoration, he was noticed the party king because he brought all those fun things back. So Chrome While created a commonwealth of England and Scotland during the interregnum, the rounds of England and Scotland were not officially united until the Acts of Union in 1707. And that was during the reign of the last shirt monarch Queen ion. And this created the kingdom that we know today as Great Britain. Revolts, rebellions on restoration. The restoration put Charles the second on the throat, the party king, his father having been executed as we had. His brother James the seventh on second, was deposed during the glorious revolution because he was a Catholic and replaced with his protestant daughter, Mary the second and her husband William that second, the numbers get very confusing at this point in history. Her sister on, succeeded her as queen and neither marry nor on hard any children on the throne pass to the highest of Hanover in 1714. The descendants of James the seventh of Scotland on second of England were known as Jacobites. Jacob being an essence, the same name as James, James as the English equivalent of the Hebrew name Jacob. And they attempted to kill him the throne right up until the early 19th century. The current Jacobite air, we do have one. It's France, Jacob Bavaria of the Hyslop vital spark, a German Aristocratic House. And he was born in 1933 and it's still with us as I record this. We need to talk a little bit about Jim's the fourth on firsts parentage and the Stuart's ended up on the throne of England as well as Scotland. Well in 1503 as James the fourth borrowed Margaret shooter, but she got married again later, after she was widowed. And she married a guy called Archibald Douglas, sixth RL of Angus. Their daughter Margaret Douglas. How does son named Henry Stewart, Lord darn Lee, and he became the second husband of Mary Queen of Scots. Are you confused? I am because Mary was Margaret tutors ground daughter. They actually shared a grandmother. Darn Lee's father was Mathew Stewart forth Arlo of Linux. It was a member of the darn lay branch of the house of spirit. So any children that darn, I'm married would have would be very much Stuart heirs. And it so happened that Mary's only child, James, was fathered by darn late. Now Darwin ended up dying and pretty mysterious circumstances. I'm Mary on to our next husband. They are above well, where suspected off his murder. Both Darley and Mary had claims to the English throne. So gems there, therefore inherited a pretty strong claim to the throne. And so it was William sessile negotiated with jams when Elizabeth the first refuse to name and air. In the time of the shirts, we have what's called personal union. So there's a common monarch in England, Ireland, and Scotland, but that doesn't mean they're one the end today. Despite having the same monarch conflicts actually arose known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, England, Scotland, and Ireland. Of course, between 163953 on phase contributed to the downfall of Charles the First. He was tried and executed by parliament for authoritarianism. And 1649, we haven't had an absolute monarch since Magna Carta, but monarchs have still been pretty powerful. This point in history that starts to be challenged. The 11-year Republican and drag them, followed as we heard on. During this time, Scotland actually recognize Charles's some who later became Charles the second osmotic, but was forced into a commonwealth by general monks, occupying army. Monk was later actually a key figure and the restoration of bringing Charles the second to the throne. Senior members of the height of Stewart lived in exile in Europe during the interregnum, England was not a safe place for them to be at that time. But Charles, the second return to claim the tight lift, King of England, Ireland, and Scotland in the 1880s. But he did with his ran from the execution of his father and 1649, Charles the second smother happened to be French on, during his ran, the ILD alliance between Scotland and France was somewhat reignited AND NOT wasn't popular. He had no legitimate heirs, but he had numerous illegitimate children. And actually a lot of people are descended from Charles the Second. The French Connection was unpopular, as we've mentioned, as was an association of the high substitute with Catholicism under jams the seventh on second Charles, his brother. I'm not eventually led to its downfall. Jim's the seventh 1 second, as we've mentioned, succeeded his brother. He proposed tolerance for Catholics on, for Protestant dissenters. Those were Protestant people who weren't members of the Church of England. This alienated on downright infuriated the Anglican establishment and other enemies of James's, leading to the glorious revolution. The glorious revelation, James was replaced with his daughter Mary and her husband who rode with her as co regent. William. James actually encouraged rebellions against them and his name, his defenders on his descendants where, as we know, known as Jacobites. His grandson, Charles Edward Stuart, known as Bonnie Prince Charlie, that a failed on much romanticized attempt to claim the throne, resulting in slaughter at the Battle of collagens. And we're going to talk about that a little bit more in depth later. As a result of attitudes to the Jacobites, Catholic emancipation did not take place in England until the late 18th and early 19th centuries, which was very late. And actually British monarchs were not permitted to marry a Catholic until 2015. Catholics hard to pronounce papal authority and transubstantiation is a course in history, not in theology. So I'm not gonna go too in-depth into this, that basically these are two key components, all being a Catholic, which are not allied to do. The Whigs who were liberal political party during the Georgian era wanted to extend tolerance to Irish Catholics. And this is how we see high, what started on this tutor as periods echoes dawn history through the centuries, right the way through to quite modern times. In the Georgian era, the Whigs were opposed and their attitude towards Irish conflicts by the Tories, the conservatives, same party as we have today. This was a factor and the partition of Ireland in 1921, and actually as recently as 1972, it was still having repercussions. Not I would like to say here that I tell this story only to explain it Just to point light high. What began all those centuries ago was ongoing. In 1972, Catholics and Northern Ireland fist gerrymandering. And that was the rigging of electoral bond raise basically to disenfranchise them so that their votes didn't count for very much. They faced discrimination in the workplace on a gabbing jobs, aren't they faced discrimination? And highest, at a protest March and dairy in 1970 to 26, civilian protesters were shot dead by the British Army, and what is now referred to as Bloody Sunday. There were two inquiries into this. One of them, The Saville inquiry was the largest legal investigation in British history. On 2010, the British Prime Minister David Cameron apologized for the bloodshed. But the events of the day are still controversial on disputed and some quarters. But this all really begins. Hartley and the random Elizabeth, the First but quite substantially and the RAN of jams the seventh on second with the Glorious Revolution and still impacts us today. So monarchs of the highest of shirt. Well this goes right the way back to Robert the second, but we're going to talk a little bit about the monarchs from James the sixth on first, once they take the throne of England as well as Scotland. James the sixth on first succeeded Elizabeth the 1st. And he was the son of Mary Queen of Scots, whom Elizabeth had had executed. As we note. He's quite famous actually for the King James Bible. He was succeeded by Charles the First who was executed by parliament, the only British monarch to ever have had that happen to them. After that, there was an 11-year Republican and drag them. Then Charles the second the party King, came to the throne. He had a lot of children but no heirs. And so he was succeeded by his brother James the seventh on second. James the seventh of Scotland, on second of England, of course, who embraced Catholicism. And so it was unpopular and so it was deposed and the Glorious Revolution. And a place by his daughter married a second who rode with her husband William the third. Second. The numbers are so confusing. They had no children and so Mary was succeeded by her sister, who was the last Stuart monarch. During ads ran in 1707, the Acts of Union were signed on. So we have the Kingdom of Great Britain. We also have the Union flag that we still use today. The blue background with white X being the flag of Scotland on the Red Cross big the flag of England. And they come together to give us the flag that we now have died without any errors. She sadly lost quite a lot of children. And the house of Hanover succeeded the height of Stewart in 1714. 39. James VI and I Part 1: In this video, we're going to talk about the first Stuart King who succeeded Elizabeth the first, and that is James the sixth of Scotland and First of England. And he is also known as James Charles Stewart. And he lived from the 19th of June 1566 until the 27th of March 16th, 25. He ruled England from the 24th of March, 1603 until his death. He's known for quite a few things, significant changes during his reign. He ruled and a personal union. But that didn't mean that England and Scotland at also Ireland, which he was king, became one steps. They all remained individual states with their own Administration's during his tenure. He was the son of Mary Queen of Scots and a grid grid grandson of Henry the seventh, as we've heard before. He succeeded to the throne of Scotland when he was only 13 months old, after his mother was forced to abdicate and his favor. He have four different reagents until he reached majority. And even after that, he had to struggle a bit too real himself. And his ran in both Scotland and England as known as the Jacobean era. Really three realms. He could've lived in any of them, but he chose England because it was the biggest and most prestigious of the countries that he wrote. He promised to return to Scotland every three years when he became king of England spot, he actually only returned once and 1617, he styled himself King of Great Britain and Ireland. Other, there were some opposition to his using that title as well. Here. He really wanted a single parliament for England and Scotland. Although parliament and England and Scotland didn't happen to agree with him, a major thing that happened during his reign was the plantation of Ulster and colonization of the Americas, which began with the famous Jim's tone, Colony and Virginia in 1603. The gunpowder plot and 1605 is also a very famous episode. And his ran, we're going to hear a little bit a byte button just a minute. He was frequently in conflict with parliament during his reign. But something that went a little bit better during his reign was the literature flourished with writers such as Shakespeare, job done, Ban Johnson, answer Francis Beck, and all writing during the Jacobean period. And James was a writer himself. He wrote several books, one called demonology and 1597, the true law of free monarchies in 1598. And a book that was like an instruction manual obeying King, which he wrote for his son called Basilican door on which is a treaties on effective governments. And 1599. And he's actually widely regarded as being quite a good writer on his prose is considered to be of a high standard. He of course, sponsored a translation of the Bible, which is known as the authorized version or the King James version or the authorised King James version, which is still in use today and it's considered a major work of English literature. The politicians are out today well-done, called James the wisest, foo, and Christendom. And that's actually a perception of germs that stuck for quite some time. Other modern historians don't really see him as that. They see him as other. We had some esoteric interests as actually having been a fairly sensible, committed monarch. James was committed to pace as well and refuse to participate in religious wars, especially the Thirty Years War, which was devastating the Holy Roman Empire and swaths of Europe at the time. Let's talk about the early life of Gems, which was actually fairly unstable. He was the son of Mary Queen of Scots and her second husband, Henry Stewart, Lord darling. We had stored blood coming to him from both his parents and both his parents, how to claim on the English throne. Darley and Mary were Catholic though, and so that made them unpopular with the Protestant Scottish nobility. And they actually fist or revolts while James was very young. And other source of instability was that his parents marriage was not a happy one. Darley had conspired with Mary secretaries to murder her private secretary and France, David Wright, CEO. And that happened while Mary was six months pregnant with James on it was horrendously traumatic to her. She had been a close friend of this guy. James was born on the 19th of June, 1566 at Edinburgh Castle. And you can't actually go and see the room where he was born if you happen to be an Edinburgh, I've done that and it's very much worth doing. He became heir apparent to the Scottish thrown the moment he was born. And also Jacob Roth say add grids. Church of Scotland from borrower pays an important figure. He was baptized either Charles James or James Charles and a Catholic ceremony on the 17th of December 1566 at Sterling Castle. And as we mentioned before, who the godparents have a child? R has a lot of significance and his godparents were Elizabeth, the First of England. Charles the 9th of France, add the hub spark prints Emmanuelle filbert, Jacob Savoy. None of these people could actually make the ceremony. So Elizabeth was represented by the airlift Bedford. Charles was represented by John content Brianne manual. Filbert was represented by the ambassador of the Holy Roman Empire, deliberate to croc Mary's French court musician by ostium hij then presented entertainment for the gas sent unfortunately, it caused a fence to the English gas because there were some satyrs onstage which they thought was basically making a tick MD up that Mary actually considered baby James to be a newborn King Arthur and had an Arthurian theme to celebrations of his christening. Because she believed that one day he would unite the kingdoms of the British Isles, which she's sort of dead. But as we've heard, not to quite the extent that they became United later in history. Darn Lee James, his father, was murdered at Kirchoff field of Attenborough on the 10th of February, 1567, Jim's inherited the titles of Duke of Albany and our love Ross, when his father died. Now I'm Mary was already pretty unpopular and this wasn't helped by her marriage to James Hepburn forth olive bulb well, on the 15th of May, 1567, P was widely thought to be darn lays murderer add Mary herself was suspected of involvement and the murder. And so she was imprisoned by Protestant rebels and Luck Club and Castle and Jim 1567, and she never saw her son again. She was actually forced to abdicate in favor of the 13 month old jams on the 24th of July, 1567. So it's hard to know what memories jams could possibly have had of his mother because from babyhood, didn't see her again. Marries a legitimate half brother James shirt airlift Murray was appointed as the young James's reagent. And James was cared for by the aryl and contests if mar, at sterling castle. So that's where he spends his young childhood. Atom both well, Bishop of arc may unknown to James as King of Scotland, the Church of the Holy Road and sterling on the 29th of July, 1567. And the sermon was preached by the founder of the Protestant Church of Scotland, John Knox, who was a big theological vigor and Scotland at the time, james was raised as a member of the Church of Scotland, known as the Kirk. That was customary for members of the Scottish ruling classes. And having him baptized Catholic Mary Queen of Scots, and actually deviated from what most nobles dead. The Privy Council selected James's cheaters, wanted him to be educated as a protestant. One of these george Buchanan bait him regularly. Corporal punishment was actually high. Things were dealt with in those days. It was trying to make the points. You may be a king, but you're still a boy, although it was quite harsh. But as well as beating the boy, he also instilled a love of literature and learning into James Buchanan's influences, sane and James his treatise de jure I resonate up, put SCOTUS the rights of the kingdom of Scotland, which shows gyms as a religious Protestant King who considered monarchy to have limitation. When he became king of England, Parliament might've thought he could have been a bit more limited. 1568, Mary escaped from Locke, glove and Castle and violence and sued. Mary's trips were defeated by those of her half-brother at the RL of Morris at the Battle of lying side. I'm Mary was forced to flee to England. She saw ed from Elizabeth, whom she expected to help her as a sister queen, God's anointed queen. But instead Elizabeth and present her and helped her and various castles for the next 18.5 years. Mary supporter James Hamilton of both while assassinated the olive moray on the 23rd of January, 1570. James's sixes paternal grandfather as a darlings father, Matthew Stewart forth airlift Lennox became the next reagent either he was killed a year later and a red by Mary supporters. He was replaced as region by the RL of Marr who died off what was described as a vain man. Two segments on the 28th of October 1572 at Sterling. And he developed this sigmas after a bind quits given by James Douglas forth are left Martin who became the next region. So quite likely that he was poisoned. Does this illness came out very suddenly after this banquet. The Oliver Morton was the most effective reagent, but he made enemies quite easily as he was quite grading. James was proclaimed an edge to row in his own right to Sarah and I named the entry of King James the sixth ed to Edinburgh on the 19th of October 1579. It was executed for darn Lee's murder quite a long time after the rider on the second of June 15th at A1, James's father's cousin as my shirt, Sierra dopant, arrived in Scotland from France and became a favorite of the young king, who made him the only Jake and Scotland. And the 15-year-old james remained under the influence of the Duke athletics as he was night for about a year. Scottish Calvinists belief but Lenox and their words wants to draw the king to carnal ****. And they weren't really happy about this. Not just because of the homosexuality, but because of the par, that Lennox was exactly over the king. In August 1582, the arrows of Gary and I guess that's the imprisonment jams at rough on castle, an ordered lattice site of Scotland. And this incident is known as the rough and read. James was released in June 1583, and at that point he assumed greater control of the kingdom. He passed the black Act, which gave the monarch par over the Kirk, the Church of Scotland, and denied the writings of his former chief change GRP, a cannon at this point. And we know he had been influenced by Buchanan and the past. From 1584 to 1603, he created relative peace amongst the Lord switch was no main fate. Edit by the later of the government, the chancellor Joel Midland of 30 Justin. And he led the government until 1592. In 1596, they, Octavian's who were at it man commission, attempted to ameliorate James's finances, which were at a bit of a mess. They met with opposition from those who basically have vested interests and what happened to Royal Ballet. And they disbanded after a year. There was an anti-Catholic riots and Attenborough arrived this time, and that caused the court to move to lift guy for a time. August 16, hundreds Alexander refer the younger brother of the arrow of gyri and who had imprisoned gems, assaulted the king. And that's a pretty serious thing too, felt the king. And he was run through by James's page, John Ramsey, who later became first Earl of holding us the airlift guy Ray was then killed and the frack have that followed. Now, there were very few witnesses to high this brawling broke ICT jams, had an ax to grind against the reference obviously, and he owed them a very large sum of money. His version of events of how the two brothers died has been questioned. In 1586, Jim signed the Treaty of barrack with England, and that was a peace agreement, which the way for his letter succession. Mary Queen of Scots was executed in 1587. And though he hadn't known as mother while she was still his mother. And James describes his mother's execution as a propulsive iris and strange procedure. In his youth, James was praised for his chats today since he didn't seem to be interested in women very much and he seemed to prefer male company. Suitable bride was fined for James though, and out of Denmark, the 14-year-olds, younger daughter of Frederick the second, because it's about time that he started thinking off producing on air and political alliances. Basically, a proxy wedding took place in Copenhagen and August 1589 and headed for Scotland, but it was caught in a storm and carried to the coast of Norway. James took 300 men on wet to rescue her. And what the historian David Harris Wilson called the one romantic episode of his life. So she's a damsel in distress with James rushing off to save her. A couple of married formally and the bishop's palace and all slow, on the 23rd of November, 1589, AM came with a sizable Dari, which was pretty handy because gyms really liked to spend money. We're going to hear litter. The couple met with the famous astronomer Tycho Brahe and Denmark and they had a bit of a honeymoon and Scandinavia. And then they've returned to Scotland in the first 159800, was reputed to have been very fond of an and treated her with affection through ICT their marriage. They had three children who survived beyond childhood. Henri Frederic Prince of Wales, who died of typhoid, aged it takes and 1612 Elizabeth's church and she married Frederick the fifth of the palate met and the secular princes of the Holy Roman Empire. And he was actually King of Bohemia for about one winter. And so Elizabeth became known as The Winter Queen. And then of course there was Charles, who was later the airfare. Did Charles, the first two succeeded James? I'm died and March 1619. While he was in Denmark, James became fascinated with witchcraft. Witch trials were sweeping Europe at the time. He considered a study of witchcraft to be a branch of theology. And he went to the first Scottish witch trials and North barrack, the witchcraft act having been passed and 1563, several defendants were convicted of sanding storms against James and ship. Most notably a lady called Agnes Sampson, also known as the wise wife of kth. Shea, was arrested on tortured and made a confession under torture. And her buttery showed what was called a witch's mark. She was actually shift to reveal the smart. She was interviewed by King James himself and he was actually pretty skeptical of her confession, which have been scanned under torture. I'm would've saved her life. So he actually was prepared to believe she was innocent until something very airy happened. She made known to Jim's details of a private conversation that he had had on his wedding night with his wife out of Denmark, which nobody could have known about. No. I'm not going to conjecture high, she knew the details of this conversation, but what is really artist like? Why would she tell the king back? He was willing to believe she was innocent. And it's actually really changed his mind and it caused a certain amount of paranoia. Jan's really believed after he was freaked out by this incident, that witches were plotting against him. So she was found guilty. And on the 27th of January 1591, actress was Garage Band burned at the stake. James felt himself and others to be under threat by watches, as I mentioned from that point, because he was so freaked out as the modern where you would use by the experience that he just had. And he wrote a book called demonology in 1597, which provided material for Shakespeare's Macbeth and the witches in Macbeth. Jim's supervised they torture of women accused of witchcraft in person. After that, after 1599, though, he became a bit more of a skeptic after he had kept on quite a long time later, wrote to his eldest son Henry, that most miracles nowadays prove but illusions. And you may see by this high wary judges should Bay and trusting accusations. And that's not really high hand felt at the North barrack witch trials. He also had a part to play and the very famous handle witch trials include some information about that. And the end section of this part of the course, discord between Scottish clans and the hybridize and western seaboard was problematic for James. And official documents describe the Gaelic speaking citizens at the haberdashery as void of the knowledge unfair of God with all kinds of barbarous and best tile cruelties. The Scottish parliament decided to abolish Gaelic or as it was known as an Irish, implying that it was something foreign and it didn't really belong. And Scotland, in 1598, Jim sent the gentleman adventurers of five to colonize the most barbarous aisle of alerts as he described it. And these were 11 nobleman, mostly from Eastern five, hence the name. The colonists were at first driven either by Murdoch and naval backlight. But they were successful on the third attempt at colonization. And 16071609, the statutes of Iona required clan chiefs to support Protestant highland ministers, to ICT law bards, like local wise man and poets, to be accountable to officials in Edinburgh and the sand, their heirs to SKU and lowland Scotland or Protestant skills where English was spoken. So they're making the residents of the hybridize and, and other similar areas closer and culture to themselves. So it has colonialism, according to historian Kenneth MacKinnon, this was specifically aimed at the extra patient of the Gaelic language, the destruction of its traditional culture and the suppression of its bearers. James's cousin, Patrick Stewart Aalborg, me, resisted the statutes of iota on Wilson president. His illegitimate son Robert unsuccessfully rebelled against gyms on both father and son were hanged. There are states were forfeited, so Orc they are the Shetland Islands. Now I belonged to the crime. Out of this whole tobacco, James became more powerful. Let's talk a little bit about Jim's as fair a, of monarchy. In 1597 to eight, James wrote the true law of free monarchies and another work called Basilican door on which means the royal gift. He believed in the divine right of kings, and other words, kings were appointed by God Himself and specifically created for the task of kingship. They are special human beings. He said, I ever that the highest bench is the slip easiest to set up on. That does sound like it could be true. And his worldview, a king had a right to impose new laws, but must be mindful of tradition at God. He believed God would stir up such scar, just as pleased with him for punishment of wicked kings. You were given more par on. So you have more to account for, basically was his belief. But silicone door on was intended as a practical guide to kingship for the 16-year-old prints Henry, who he believed would sucks say ten sappy, He died at the age of IT team. He told Henry, hold no parliaments, but for the necessity of new laws, which would be but seldom, in other words, have as much power as you can for yourself on don't share it ICT very much. Obviously, when James that became King of England, Parliament in England took issue with this way of saying thanks. His view was thought, as he put it, before any estates or ranks of man, before any parliaments were Holden are laws made by kings was the land distributed, which at first was wholly theirs. And so it follows by necessity that kings were the authors on makers of its laws, are not the laws of the gangs. That's obviously not high. We think today, I'm not at all hi. Parliaments of the time would've thought either. Unsurprisingly conflicts between James and parliament, especially in England, we're going to be unavoidable. 40. James VI and I Part 2: On the topic of jams and writing. Jim's was a prolific patron of literature, promoting Scottish literature in the 1890s. And he actually wrote some rows and cautions to be observed and Scottish prosody in 1584 when he was only 18. So he was interested in literature through artist's life. This applied renaissance ideas to his mother tongue sculpts. He also promoted undeformed music teacher, which he saw as connected to literature. So he's very interested in the culture of Scotland and its development. He was the head of a bond of Jacobean poets known as the Castilian bond, which included William filer and Alexander Montgomery. And James himself was a writer and poet and member of the group, not just as patron. Hey, reduced the promotion of native Scottish culture. And the 1880s when it looked like that he would succeed to the throne of England though. Alexandra and other court poets, I gangliosides they're writing at that point, I moved to England with jams when he succeeded Elizabeth the first in 1603. He was a patron of Renaissance poetry and drama and England as well, which came to its zenith. And his row with drama tests and poets such as Shakespeare and Thomas Middleton on job done, of course, promised 1601, William Sasso, Lord Barley, who was advisor to Elizabeth the first, corresponded with James to ensure a smooth succession after Elizabeth died, and Elizabeth died on the 24th of March 16th, O3, and James was proclaimed King of England that day. The 5th of April. James left Edinburgh for London, promising to return to Scotland every three years, but he only did so once. 1617. James was entertained on fitted by English nobles on his progress SIFE, feeling he was in his words, swapping a stony coach for David feather bat, band King of England as a whole other level to be in King of Scotland, according to James the sixth of Scotland on First of England. He arrived in London on the seventh of May, 1603, and the public flocked to see him. And his accession triggered know unrest or the other would-be some trouble later. He was crying on the 25th of July at Westminster Abbey. Although a plague restricted to the public facilities, the poet Thomas Dekker remarked that the streets seemed paved with man stalls instead of rich, where's were set out with children, open kiss months filled up with women. So there's a lot of interest in this new King. James had inherited a kingdom and debt due to war and Ireland. Ad monopolies and taxation had also caused L failing under Elizabeth the first, so we had some problems to our night. There were two plots against James and the first year of his ran the pyplot, which was Catholic priests and Puritans seeking religious freedom, who aimed to kidnap the king. And it was called the pyplot, as it was thought to be part of a larger conspiracy known as the man plot. The band plot was led by Henry brick, 11th album, WHO AM to depose James and replaced him with his cousin that Liddy Arabella shirt. Famous figures such as call them on Sir Walter Raleigh, where a raster. As part of these plots, James disappointed some by retaining Elizabeth's purvey kite solid. So there isn't a complete political change of Guard under James. What she had a grade to do with Sasso. He added his longtime supporter, henry Howard, the first Oliver North Hampton, and his nephew Thomas Hart, plus some Scottish counselors to the Privy Council. Robert Sasso, the son of Lord Barley, who later became the airlift salts break, continue to run the government and England along with Thomas adjuvant the first bicarb broccoli, whom James named, Lord Chancellor and barren Ellesmere. Thomas Sackville was mid arm look Dorset and demand lord treasurer. So this helps with stability in a way that James isn't making too many changes that he's also trying to put his own stamp on the administration of England. James plant, a closer union between England and Scotland and concentrated on foreign policy. And he went off hunting quite a lot as well. Well, even a king has got to have a break every now and then. There was a personal union of England and Scotland under jams because he was monarch if both countries, but that didn't make them one realm, he actually wanted to make them into one country with one parliament, but he met with opposition and both countries towards this end. And James, as part of a half god dot mid us all and one island combust with one say and of itself by nature and divisible. So he's saying that nature itself, what Scotland and England to be one country, Parliament doesn't really buy this. It pulls 160 for Parliament refused to grant Jim's the title of King of Great Britain. From X6, C2H4, he began using the title anyway, but was told by Sir Francis Bacon he could not use it on any legal proceedings, instrument or assurance, and the title did not appear in English statutes. It's just what Jim styles himself. It was used in the Scottish parliament though, and in both countries on coins, latter's proclamations on trade days. James achieved pastes with spin an August 1604, since he had never been at war with span, that accountant under Elizabeth. So he was able to argue he had no beef with them. Robert sessile and Henry hired help to skillfully negotiate the treaty, and it was celebrated with a grit banquet. James was mistrusted abroad for repression of Catholics, and span wanted to see freedom of worship for English Catholics. Home. The Privy Council admonished him just the opposite, to treat Catholics more harshly. This led to one of the most notorious incidents of James's row, the gunpowder plots. Remember, remember the 5th of November, gunpowder treason and plot. The 5th of November, romance, bonfire night and England to this day are Guy Fawkes Night and we're gonna hear high that camera bite. On the night of the fourth to the fifth of November 1605, guy Fox, a member of a sacred circle aiming to address repression of Catholics, was Fund and the sellers of parliament buildings with wood and 36 barrels of gunpowder. So it was obvious that he wasn't planning anything good. It was the eve of the opening of the second session of James's first Parliament in England. So very much like we have the state opening of parliament today, that would've been a big event. The king and his family and many dignitaries would have been there. And it was assumed that Fox and tended to blow up parliament, in James's view, caused the destruction not only of my person nor of my wife on posterity also, but the whole body of the state and general. He believes that the plotters wanted to kill him, his family and the heirs, but also to completely bring down the country. We think of guy Fox has being big key figure in this plot. But the leader was actually a guy called Robert kits Bay, who was joined by Fox, of course by Thomas winter, Thomas per se, and John right, amongst others. And I hope that the death of the king and possibly the whole row family would cause confusion and that the anti-Catholic Council and Parliament would be replaced with Catholic rulers. It was Percy who declared his intent to kill the king at first amongst the sacred circle. And Ksp wrote to him and May 16, seven that he was thinking of, most sure away. January 1604 at a heist and Lambeth kits be invited Robert winter and John right to join the plot to blow up parliament. The conspirators decided to try what they called a quiet way for us to repeal the laws that effectively banned Catholicism. Went to, went to France to seek the aid of Juan to the juke, a free us uncomfortable of Castillo, who was negotiating as Spanish peace with England at the time. Winter actually achieved very little, but securing empty promises and returned with guy Fox, who was a zealot Catholic and known for not shying away from danger. So he's basically willing to do anything and it's probably your man if you want to Parliament blown up, Parsi joined the plot and May and the conspirators met and a heist behind some climates church where they swore an oath of secrecy and took masks with Father John Girard. Remember that taking mass and practicing Catholicism at the time was something that you pretty much had to do covertly. Religious freedom doesn't really exist at this point in the history. Others joined the plot and at least two Jesuit priests were aware that this was happening on the 24th of May 1600 for the conspirators hired a heist and parses name adjacent to the House of Lords. They tried to dig from the seller of the highest into the House of Lords on the 11th of December. I got halfway through the wall by March when they discovered a vault immediately under the Lords was available at night in the modern day about seems crazy, there's obviously a security issue and hiring art space that's right under parliament buildings, but they were able to get hold of the seller. Prc hired the space and filled it with the 36 barrels or 1400 kilograms or 1.5 tonnes of gunpowder and covered over with cool on firewood. May 16, five, the preparations were in place of the conspirators separated on wet their own ways. Folks went to Flanders and discussed the plot with Hugh Owen, who was a Welsh Catholic, who had been part of a former plot against Elizabeth the 1st and 1571, Edward Bennett was sent to Rome to went over the Pope. When the plot was complete, the conspirator dig Bay organized a hunting match and war extra for Catholic gentry to encourage them to join the plot. The plotters antenna to kidnapped princess Elizabeth, James, his daughter, the ban infant Prince Charles. Fox was to board a ship and gather support on continental Europe for their cause. They imagined that the government would give in to their demands and the terror that was created. As you can see, there is a huge strike of immature. It's a amongst the conspirators and the sort of lack of realism as the debt for the terror attack drew near though several conspirators felt their consciences twinge for the deaths of innocent individuals, other Catholics, relatives and personal friends with the conspirators could easily be killed. And this attack that came to realize, but kids be refused appeals to let the conspirators ward individuals who might become victims. Lord mount ego, who had been part of previous Catholic plots, but her declared his loyalty to James, received an anonymous letter on the 26th of October, and this is what the latter set. My lord, either the love I bear to some of your friends, I have a care of your preservation. Therefore, I would advise you as you tend to your life to devise some excuse to shift your attendance up this parliament for garden man have concurred to punish the wickedness of this time. I think not slightly of this advertisement, but retire yourself into your country where you may expect the event and safety for though they're being parents of any star. Yet I say they shall receive a terrible blow this parliament, and yet they shall not see who hurts them. Let's cancel. It's not to be condemned because it may do you good and can do no harm for the danger has passed as soon as you have brought this latter, I hope God will give you the grace to make good use of it to who's holy protection. I command J. We don't know for sure who said this ladder, but the most likely center was multicolored. Brother-in-law, Francis trash him, who was part of the plot. It gave time from our day go to prevent the attack whilst allowing the conspirators to escape. Multicolor rush to Whitehall were Robert Sasso was sitting down to eight with other ministers and handed over the letter. There was no way he was good about it. It was decided to start the seller onto the Lord's, but not immediately, so as to catch the conspirators. On the 27th of October at Mount Eagle servant Thomas words total. Thomas Wedgwood, that the plot had been discovered. Bag kit speak to put an entered folks took kits pay that the seller was untouched, that no one had seen it. I can't speak belief that the government we're not taking the threat seriously and plan to proceed. Folks returned to guard the seller. On the fourth of November, the king ordered the Lord Chamberlain, Thomas Harvard, to search the buildings. He was accompanied by MALDI ego when they reach the seller, folks opened the door to them and they saw the huge pile of forward. They asked who owned the words and Fox give policies name? Thomas Nivea to a Westminster judge, was called to carry out a farther search. He had his mad discovered the gunpowder and arrested Fox. Fox was tortured and revealed the identities of the conspirators. On the 9th of November 1605, they fled to work shirt where kids be informed their France that the plot had failed. Kits pay decided to have two whales thinking that he was going to be joined by bonds of insurgents, which shows the lack of realism that the plotters had. All the SEC that to fabricate switch party arrived at Huntington and took part and confession unmasked. There was by 36 of them at this point. They then wrote to a whole big choice in Staffordshire, breaking into Lord Windsor is highest at heel Grinch, to stay with the arms and ammunition. Dig be lamented, not one had come to take our part, though. We had expected so many. They really don't have popular support. They were being pursued by the sheriff and the game is nearly up one by one. They started to leave the heist. Some of their gunpowder that they had with them exploded on the 8th of November, which they took as a sign of the judgment of God that he didn't see their causes truly just. They realized high grit, the crime that they had been planning to commit walls. At 11 I add, the sheriff on his man, began firing up the highest kits be Percy and right were all killed. Others were wounded and taken prisoner. It conspirators including winters digs me, I'm Fox were executed and trash him died and the Tower of London, one of the priests, Father Garnet, was tried and executed while to other priests, greenway on Jarrett, who had given the mass, escaped to Europe. Laws against Catholics immediately became more severe. The cause of Catholic amounts of patient was pushed back for centuries, not that it was associated with terrorism. And January 1606, parliament declared November the 5th as a day of public thanksgiving. And guy Fox, or bonfire night, as we mentioned earlier, is still celebrated to this day as being the dye that democracy escaped attack. After the gunpowder plot, there was a brief period of time where Jameson parliament actually seemed to get on. But that didn't last. From around 1604. There have been difficulties between James and parliament because both sides didn't really understand each other. Jams have per roped parliament on the 7th of July 1604, meaning that he used royal prerogative to stop parliament early. And he did this because parliament would not support a union between England and Scotland or provide James was subsidized. He didn't really meant his words about his feelings about this. He said, I will not thank where I feel, no thanks. I am not have such a stock as to praise fools. You may see how many things you did not well, I wish you would make use of your liberty with more modesty and time to come. Dare. Not. A big problem was that James was court was financially and competent and accrued huge debts, and parliament was simply unhappy to pay for this. In February 1610, Robert Sasso proposed the grit contract in which James would grant tan, royal concessions and parliament would pay 600 thousand pods, declare his debts and a £200 thousand annual sum. And I haven't been able to find a modern equivalent of base sums, but it was a very, very large amount of money. So negotiations became protracted and James dismissed parliament on the 31st of December 16th tab. The same thing happened again and the so-called adult Parliament of 1614, which James dismissed after ONE late nine weeks. For a time, he ruled with either Parliament until 1621, selling Barnett says and other dignitaries to raise money for the crime. One way to make money for the crime was to marry Charles, who was nigh Prince of Wales, and Santa Maria ADA of spin. And this would also secure peace with span. So it seemed like a good plan. The negotiations took over a decade, during which time conflict with span was avoidance. Catholic nobles and officials such as the Howard supported the match on became known as the Spanish apartheid Protestants query to the match. 1616, Sir Walter Raleigh was released on, went on a gold hunts and South America under strict instructions from Jams not to engage the Spanish. The expedition was a dismal failure and rallies and Walter was killed fighting the Spanish. James had rally executed on his return on that was incredibly unpopular with the public who opposed the appeasement of span. The Thirty Years War, farther impact of jams as policy regarding span. It was an incredibly destructive war within Europe or a religious war which led to the death of millions of people on Jim's didn't really want to get involved in it. James's son-in-law, Frederick the fifth, they elect your palatine, was deposed and behavior by the Catholic Emperor Ferdinand the second 1620 and Spanish trips and they're added Frederick's homelands and the R9 region. And 1621 James finally called a parliament to seek funding for a military expedition to add Frederick, neither has family was involved. He couldn't really stay out of it. The commons granted on an adequate sum of money to carry out the expedition and called for a war on span because they remembered the profits that have been made during the reign of Elizabeth, the First by naval attacks on Spanish gold shipments, led by Sir Edward Coke and November 1621, parliamentarians osteons for a war with span, enforcement of anti-Catholic laws, and for Prince Charles to marry a Protestant. Jim's lost his temper and threatened reprisal if they persisted and interfering and matters of royal prerogative. They protested their rights, including freedom of speech, encouraged by the Spanish Ambassador, George billiards the first week of Buckingham, James expunged the protests from parliamentary records, dissolved parliament early 123s, Buckingham on the 22-year-old Prince Charles went to spend to win over the n Fanta. Unfortunately, she couldn't stand Charles when she met him making a marriage, looking very unlikely, the Spanish presented terms as well, including the repeal of anti-Catholic legislation initiated by parliament. And that really wasn't something that Buckingham at the prints could actually promise. Nevertheless, a treaty was signed, the joke and the prince returned to England with Ichiban Fanta and then binds to the treaty, to the approval of the English public. Charles and Buckingham cold for a French match the war with the Habsburg Empire. They asked James to call another Parliament to raise money. And 1624, but the outcome of the February 1624 parliament was ambiguous. James refuse to declare war or fund the war. But Charles believed the comments have committed to finance a war with spin, leading to problems during his own ran. Now let's talk a little bit about James's religious stance after the gunpowder plot, gems cracked down on English Catholics. And May 16, six, the purpose recuse and sacked was passed. And it would require any citizen to swear an oath of allegiance, refuting the pope's authority over the King. James was actually conciliatory towards Catholics who took the oath and tolerated crypto, Catholicism. Catholicism that happened and secret basically, his own court. Henry Howard, for example, was a prolific crypto Catholic. He told Henry Parsi, ninth airlift North Cumberland that he would not punish. Any that will be quiet and give button outward obedience to the law so long as they are bade him and his regime wasn't under threat. He was happy for people to do what they will behind closed doors. It was the public face that was important. When he exceeded in England, he believed he might need Catholic support. So we haven't done anything at that point to alienate Catholics. It was really after the gunpowder plot that he became a bit more worried about them. Pesky Puritans were another matter though. They wanted to do things like abolish wedding rings and confirmation, the wearing of caps and surpluses. They wanted to abolish the term praised. And James's view, this was just a bit extreme. So Jim, strictly enforced conformity. Puritans perceive that as antagonists and felt that they were being prosecuted. Objections from office. Suspensions from livings actually lessened under James's random for people who didn't practice uniformity. The Hampton Court conference and 160 for lead to a new version of the Bible and neutrons lesion of the Bible. And it is very well known to this day, the King James version or the Authorized Version or the authorised King James version, which is still in use today. And it's considered a masterpiece of Jacobean pros, out of English literature. And Scotland. Jim's tried to make the Scottish Kirk Episcopal a bit more like the Church of England and ceremonies, in other words, But this was opposed by Scottish Presbyterians. James returned for the only time to Scotland and 1617 to try and impose onto can rituals on the Scottish Kirk. His bishops forced his five articles of path through a General Assembly and 16 octane, but they were broadly resistant. This was his attempt to make the Scottish church more agriculture. James left the Scottish church divided on then that left problems for Charles the First during his reign. Now something that has been much discussed about the life of James the second, first, as his sexuality and his relationships that he was involved in some scandals during his lifetime. He had relationships with male courtiers through artist's life and historians, Tibet, the nature of these relationships. We know that he had a mistress called Annemarie when he was in Scotland. He was quiet and scholarly type. After Elizabeth, the first art going strident nature. It was sad. Rex foot, Elizabeth Noon at right Gaynor Jacobus, Elizabeth was King, James as queen. Some historians believe the Jacob Lennox, Robert Carr, Arlo Somerset, and George failures, Jacob Buckingham, whereas lovers at various points. But it's not just the view of historians. John Auckland term James's contemporary said, I never yet saw any font husband makes so much, you're so great dalliance over his beautiful spice, as I have seen King James over his favorites, especially the Jacob Buckingham Palace, a favorite royal residents of James's was restored in 2004 to eight. A passageway was flight linking Jim's his bedroom and back again was. Some biographers do not perceive these relationships as sexual though, since gyms actually condemned automate and Basilica door on as, as sin you are buying. Never to forgive. He and I had seven live children, and unfortunately add also had to stillbirths at, at least three miscarriages. So they clearly had an active sexual relationship. Other gems could've been bisexual, of course. Buckingham wrote to James, I wonder if you loved me know better than that time. I will never forget at Varna where the beds had could not be fine between the master and the dog. And that would seem to raid as a sexual reference either. Not all historians say it as such. When Robert sessile aerosols Ray died in 1612, the Elizabethan government finally came to an end. James decided to row and person, aided by Robert car, but he didn't pay close attention to the affairs of state and that caused factionalism. The Howard party, which consisted of some key figures including North Suffolk on his son-in-law, Lord knowledge, Charles hard or lovenox again, answer. Thomas lick took control of the government and car actually joined the Howard part I Car hat and the adulterous affair with the married Francis Howard, the conscious of assets, daughter of the art of Suffolk. And James arranged and an element between Francis on her husband so that they could marry. Some are 1615, Sir Thomas over Brie, who was Francis's former husband, died, and the Tower of London where James had sent him and Francis and car were convicted of his murder. Car was replaced by Buckingham as James's favorite. James pardon Francis on commuted car sentence, eventually pardoning him. And 1624, the scandal ruined James's reputation for a king to be involved in a scandal like this really was considered shocking and his court became known as a hotbed of depravity. The fall of the Howard's mid failures. The most powerful government figure by 1615. Egn has later years, James was beset by arthritis and guide to guide us like crystals that form on your joints and are very painful and kidney stones, as he became increasingly ill, Buckingham sought control. Prince Charles, James began passing bloods and the last year of his life, one theory is that he suffered from a liver condition known as porphyria. George the Third has descended, also showed symptoms of the same condition, but at might've been related to the kidney stones that we know that he suffered from. And early 1625, he came down with a form of malaria known as Tertullian egg and suffered a stroke. He had a violent attack of dysentery and died with Buckingham other side on the 27th of March 16th, 23 at theos highs, Bishop John Williams preached that King Solomon died and paste when he had lived about 60 years. And so you know, dead king gyms. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, and his tomb was lost until a nineteenth-century excavation. And the Henry the seventh volts, he was widely mourned as he had actually been quite a popular king. 41. Charles I and the English Civil War: Now we're going to talk about the troubled life on reign of Charles, the First, the only English king to have been executed. And some of the issues that came up bite during his RAN are still issues for us today. Things like the rights and freedoms of the individual and where par resides in society. And Charles's worldview, par resided with the Monarch. Parliament had very different ideas and that led to a civil war, as we're about to say. Charles the first lived from the 19th of November 1600 until the 30th of January 1649. He was king of England, Scotland, and Ireland from the 27th of March, 1625 when his father, James the sixth of Scotland and First of England died. He was executed in 1649. He was also the son of out of Denmark, of course on he became gyms as heir apparent when his brother Henry Frederick Prince of Wales, died in 1612. So Charles was not an essence born to be king. He was the second son. Often an unsuccessful attempt to marry him too. And Santa Maria Anna of span, he married princess Henrietta Maria, a fronts, a member of the House of bourbon, a powerful European royal family. She was a Catholic, and that cause charles some problems in England. Parliament wanted to curb his royal prerogative and other words, the rights that came with Bang the monarch. But he believed in the divine right of kings and he wanted to row as he saw fit. In other words, he believed that God had appointed him to his role and that he was a special human being designed for the task. He levied taxes, would like the consent of Parliament and was viewed as tyrannical by many of his subjects. His marriage to Catholic, alienated Protestant puritans on Scottish covenant. And those were people who supported a Presbyterian Church of Scotland. Hey, didn't add European Protestants and the Thirty Years War on that mid Protestants in England, a little bit nervous. They viewed him as actually being secretly pro Catholic. The bishops wars started in response to his attempts to force the Kirk, the Church of Scotland, to use high Anglican traditions rather than those favorites by the Scottish which were Presbyterian. The conflict strengthens the position of the parliaments and both Scotland and England, and led to his downfall. From 16425, Charles fought the forces of both parliaments and the English Civil War. He was defeated on handed over to the English long parliament. He refused to give in to demands for a constitutional monarchy, not a constitutional monarchy is pretty much what we have today, whereby the monarch is a figurehead representing the culture and traditions and history of the country, but doesn't actually exercise any real political par. Charles, of course solve things, vary it differently. He was captured, tried and executed for high treason. The monarchy was abolished for a time and England became a republic. In 1660 day the monarchy was restored on Charles, his son, Charles the second took the throne. Let's talk a little bit, and I bought Charles his early life. He was born in Scotland and done farmland polys and five, on the 19th of November 1600. On the 23rd of December, he was baptized at a protestant service in Hollywood palace. He was also made Duke of Albany, and that was their traditional title given to the second son of the King of Scotland. He gained the titles of Mark was Armand olive Ross on Lord at monarchy at that point. Tiny baby, big prestige, basically, Jim's became King of England. And 16 or three when Elizabeth the first died, Charles, his family moved to England, but he was actually left behind because he was considered a sickly child. He was cared for by Alexander Satan, the first olive done farmland, also known as Lord Fiverr. When Charles was 3.5, he walked the length of the grid Hall, a dumb farmland Palace, which was not an inconsiderable distance for a little toddler. And it was decided he was well enough to join his family in England. And so he left Scotland and July 1604, England, he was cared for by Lady Elizabeth Cary pictured here. She got him boots Smith of Spanish leather to strengthen his ankles. So he still comes across as a bit physically frail at this point. He had a stammer which lasted for the rest of his life, 1605, he was named Duke of York and that was the customer a title for the second son of the English monarch. He was also made in light of the bath. The Presbyterian Scott Thomas Murray became his cheater and he learned the things that royal children often learn such as classics, languages, mathematics, on religion. He was made on light of the Garter, the highest order of chivalry. And 1611, Charles became physically much stronger around this point on he enjoyed physical pursuits such as writing, shading and fencing. His elder brother Henry Frederick had a much higher public profile. Charles as the second son, he's considered a bit sickly. He's not really required to do very much on public at this point. And Charles, doors on lift up to his brother had died sadly aged only IT team in November 1612, what may have been typhoid or porphyria. Charles turned 122 weeks later on fond himself, heir apparent. His life completely changes. He's given the titles of his new role. Prince of Wales, Jacob Cornwall, Jacob Ralf, say, Earl of Chester. Another big change, and Charles's life was that his sister Elizabeth, married Frederick, the fifth Elector Palatine. And 1613, I'm moved to Heidelberg. Frederick, who was leader of the Protestant union in Europe, except at the Bohemian crime and defiance of the Holy Roman Emperor. And this led to the Thirty Years War, a very bloody European conflict. A HubSpot force invaded Frederick's lands and 1620, James had been trying to avoid war with span by negotiating marriage between Charles and in Santa Maria Anna. He, him to achieve diplomatic pace and Europe basically because he couldn't afford to pay for war. The public and the Court disapproved of the match, though they didn't want to Catholic match for Charles, Parliament demanded enforcement of anti-Catholic laws or war with spin, and a Protestant marriage for Charles. The Chancellor, Sir Francis Bacon, was impeached for corruption and the House of Lords around best time. This happened with the sanction of the, my thought set a precedent that would become very important later and Charles's life, that the process of impeachment could be used by parliament against Charles and his most prominent supporters matter. James Charles considered discussion of his marriage by the House of Commons, overreaching their role as it was a matter related to jams as royal prerogative. James angrily dissolved parliament and 1622. So Charles witnesses his father dissolve Parliament anytime he gets annoyed with them or they do something that he disapproves off basically. In February 16th, 23 Charles on George failures, Jacob Buckingham, he was a favorite of gems, traveled to span to try to conclude the marriage negotiations. But the princess consider Charles on infidel or a heretic, and the Spanish demanded that he converted to Catholicism. That would have caused all **** to break loose at home in England. They also demanded the penal laws against conflicts in England be repealed. Therapy grid or tolerance for Catholics. I'm Charles knew that Parliament would never agree to this. He just couldn't make that happen. Maria Anna was to remain and spin for a year after the marriage to ensure that the terms were an octave. Buckingham hot into fall. I, to the Spanish chief negotiating minister on walked IN a stroke. So Charles was left to conduct the negotiations. When he returned home unmarried, the public was pleased. Charles at Buckingham push gems for a war with span Act where they buy their experiences, their James called parliaments and 1624 to ask for subsidies and a declaration of war. Charles and Buckingham supported the impeachment of the lord treasurer, Lionel Cranfield, frustrated at Middlesex, who opposed war on the grounds of cost and quickly fell and much the same manner that big and Hudson and quite elderly, James told Charles he may regret reviving the use of impeachment as a tool for Parliamentarians. And of course, we know that it was his Dawn fall and actually had ended his life. Eventually underfunded English army was sent to recover the platinum it, but didn't get farther than the Dutch coast. By 1624, jams was becoming more and more l and could not control parliament. When he died in March 1625, Charles on Buckingham, how to effectively already taken control of the government. Let's talk a little bit about the early reign of Charles the first. On the 1st of May 1625, Charles was marked by proxy to the 15-year-old French princess Henrietta Maria, front of the doors of Notre-Dame to Perry. They actually met in person and counterbore on the 13th of June 1625. Charles delay the opening of Parliament until the marriage could be consummated to quell opposition to it, it would be a done deal by then, no one could stop it from happening. His new wife was Catholic and some members of parliament feared that Charles would lift restrictions on English Catholics and undermine the established Church of England. So the fact that Charles had married a conflict mixed parliament, slightly suspicious of him. Charles told parliament he would not lift religious restrictions, but he promised his new brother-in-law, Louis the 13th of fronts, just the opposite. He also loaned seven English ships to France to suppress the Hugo knows who were Protestants at La Rochelle and September 1625, I'm not caused concern at home. Charles was crowned Westminster Abbey on the second of February 16th, 26, but Henrietta Maria refused to take part in a Protestant Sarah and I answer, she went on crime. Charles continued to create mistrust with his religious policies by supporting the anti-communist Richard Montague, who was out of favor with the Puritans. Montague believed the individuals influenced their own destinies by the choices they made. Whereas Calvinist believed in predestination, the idea, but their walls are sort of roadmap for your life and that's how your life would polite. Monkeys view was described as are many AMT Calvinist view. The Armenians had been. In favor of Charles's Spanish marriage plants. So some people felt that they were slightly associated with Catholicism. Montague help reduce conflicts with King James is support. Charles made him a Royal Chaplain and that led the Puritans to believe that Charles and Tanja, to use our mechanism to restore Catholicism by the backdoor. Parliament wanted to save money and perhaps make some money like they have in the past, by avoiding war on land in Europe and attacking Spanish treasure ships in the New World. It granted an insufficient sum to fund Charles as planned were on span, he couldn't carry out land battles. Parliament also limited Charles's right to collect certain forms of customs duties to one year, whereas his forebears had been grounds with that right for life. So he was a little bit annoyed about that already. They're trying to limit his pars. The bill limiting Charles's right to tonnage and pined Edge, which was a kind of customs JD, was stuck in the House of Lords on Charles continued to collect the revenue. Buckingham lead a naval assault on span, which was an object failure. Parliament plan to impeach him. But to show his support, Charles appoints a Buckingham as chancellor of Cambridge University. And how two of his opponents, the MPs, Dudley digs and Sir John Eliot, arrested at the door of the highest of Commons and that ravaged the House of Commons. They were held for a week. On the 12th of Jane 1626, and pays wrote to Charles unmet their feelings clear. We protest before your majesty on the whole world that until this grid person to be removed from in meddling with the grid affairs of state. We are out of hope of any goods success and do fair The any money we shall account give well, through his miss employment be turned rather to the heart and prejudice of this year kingdom than otherwise. As by lamentable experience, we have find those large supplies formerly and lately given. In other words, they're not giving Charles any money because he'll use it to help himself and not the country. Charles chose to dismiss Parliament rather than dismiss Buckingham. Charles and Henrietta Maria didn't get on well either. And he expelled most of her French staff. And August 16th, 26. In 1627 and contravention of his marriage treaty, Charles launched an attack and La Rochelle and defense of the Huguenot Buckingham lab the attack and failed again, leading to Louis the 13th stage of Lara shell and farther damaging the jig standing with parliament on the public. Charles added to the spot failing by trying to raise money for this war via attacks levied with the consent of Parliament, and that was known as a forced loan. And the members 1625, the five-ninths kids tried by the King's Bench, found that child's had the right to imprison someone who refused to pay the loan without trial. That's quite a significant par for the king to have. On the 26th of May 1628, parliament asked charles to acknowledge that he could not raise taxes with the consent of Parliament. He was also prohibited from imposing martial law, imprisoning individuals without due process or quartering troops in the homes of civilians. This is a rail attempt to limit his powers, which Parliament believes he will abuse. Charles At first assented to the petition on the seventh of Jane, meaning that he gave royal assent. Bell becomes an act of parliament. It becomes a lot when it's signed by the monarch and his royal assent. So Charles assented to this petition on the seventh of June, but litre per wrote parliament and asserted his right to collect customs duties without consent from parliament. When Buckingham was assassinated on the 23rd of August 16th, 28th, Charles was distraught, according to Edward Hyde, the first start of Clarendon, he threw himself upon his bad, the mentoring with much passion on, with abundance of tears. And he wouldn't leave his room for two days. The public and the commons were actually pleased at the jigs demise, Buckingham's death, and the war with spin on the issue over his leadership. But the conflict between Charles and parliament continued even in Buckingham's absence at though his relationship with equations seem to get much better. Many other problems resolved by November 1628. And it's thought that maybe Charles transferred his affections from Buckingham to Henrietta Maria at this time, she became pregnant with their first child. In contrast to the scandalous Court of James the sixth first, Charles's court has been described by historians, custom Hebert as a model of formality or morality. There were then even more problems with Parliament. Charles opened the second session of the parliament he had per ROBDD and 1628, and January 16th, 29. Well, the moderate speech regarding customs J days, a member of parliament, John Rowe, had failed to pay tonnage appendage. And had suffered the confiscation of his goods. And many MPs viewed this as a breach of the Petition of Right. The king was really overreaching his pars. When Charles ordered parliamentary adjournment on the second of March, members held the speaker, john French dine in his chair, so that this fashion could continue long enough for resolutions against Catholicism, our mechanism and tons of Japan and edge to be read. All things that were associated with Charles. Charles responded by dissolving parliament and having nine parliamentary leaders and prisons including Sir John Eliot. This created popular support for the parliamentarians in Buckingham by his side, or the support of parliament to rely upon Charles, needed to make peace with France and span. Charles ruled England with either parliament for the next 11 years, what is known as the personal rule, or are they 11 years tyranny? There was precedent for a monarch to rule without parliament, though. The problem for Charles was the only Parliament could raise taxes. So he could only fill his Treasury and make money using his royal rights on prerogatives. There were several economic problems that had landed and Charles his lap, as well as this problem of raising money, the rans of Elizabeth, the first on James the sixth first had ended with financial deficits. Charles locked the funds to which war in Europe, and so he relied on diplomatic avenues to help his sister, Elizabeth of Bohemia and restore her husband Fredrick the fifth to the platinum, which was a big foreign policy goal of Charles's England have the lace taxation of anti-European state about time, as he couldn't call Parliament Charles reinstated and archaic law called the District of knighthood. What's required anyone earning over £40 a year from land to come to court and beknighted. And if you didn't do so, you could be fined. Using best, Charles, find those who had not attended his carnation and 1626. So can you imagine suddenly getting a bill for an event that you haven't attended? It wasn't very popular. Charles also made use of a medieval levy known as ship money, which was liquid at, but again, deeply unpopular, previously, only been used in coastal regions at times of war. But Charles argued that there was no legal raised and he could not collect it and paste time and other regions. There were popular protests when the politician John Hutton was prosecuted for nonpayment of ship money in 1637. To it, the judges actually find against hump done, but by a very small majority, 75. Charles also made money by granting monopolies, but she was technically prohibited from doing one contentious monopoly. It was the so-called Polish soap because it's I, Nazis were Catholic. The octave revocation and Scotland and 1625 provoked hostility as well as it revoked all gifts of royal or church lands made to the nobility since 1540. And the owners might have to pay an annual rent for land which they had thought by owned. So as you can imagine, that didn't make Charles popular. Judges ruled the tax within the king's prerogative. He could do it, although some of them had reservations. Another way that he made money was through the royal forests. The boundaries of the royal forests than England were restored to their ancient limits to maximize income by exploiting the land and finding land users within the restored bond race for encroachment suddenly lab that you had frequent and quite often you're starting to have to pay to use farthest plant was sold to be turned into arable land or for use by the iron industry. And the case of the Forest of Dean pictured here, very beautiful. Riots ensued, not surprisingly, and clearly the Western rising. And that was a series of riots. And Gillingham forest on the wheelchair on Dorset border, Charles face bankruptcy despite all this, by 1640, both the City of London on foreign moneylenders refused to give him loans. In July, Charles seized silver bullion worth a £130 thousand held in trust at the mint and the Tower of London, promising it slid or return at 8% interest to its owners. In August, the East India Company refused Charles alone on Lord cotton, cotton, the treasurer, says the company's paper and ****** and sold them from measly £60 thousand, which was far beneath the market value, promising to refund the money with interest later. So Charles and his servants are clearly capable of financial dodgy doings and the eyes of the public. Now, let's talk a little bit about religious conflict and the reign of Charles. The First. I know that there will be many different people watching this video and some of you will have your own religious faith and others of you will not. But the reason that we're talking about this is that there's a very important concept coming to the fore here. And that is the right to have a religion or a way of thinking on a community different than the one that is imposed on you by the monarch and the establishment. And that's really the right. From this period of history that we carry through to today, we see the beginning of it starting to happen. Puritan reformers thought charles to sympathetic to our mechanism. Which they considered irreligious and opposed his desire to make the Church of England more traditional and sacramental. In other words, more Catholic. Protestants were displays at his lack of support for European Protestants. In 1633, Charles appointed William Lord as Archbishop of Canterbury and Charlson lot attempted to impose uniformity and other words, everybody had to worship and exactly the same way based on the services in the Book of Common Prayer, as well as introducing unpopular measures such as King James is declaration of sports which allowed secular activities on a Sunday. Law that those who opposed his measures prosecuted. And the court of High Commission on the Star Chamber. These were the countries to highest courts. Puritans were often excluded from church offices on livelihoods. Religious dissent was heavily censored. Even the landed classes and Georgia gridding punishments. William Prince, Henry Barton on John Bostwick published anti Episcopal pamphlets and they were punished by bank failure rate. In other words, they were put in stocks, which I know we think of as a bit of a accommodate punishment from TV. Amazed ice, but actually that was a very horrible, humiliating, unpleasant thing to have done to you. They were also wept on cropped. In other words, their heirs were caught off, which was just barbaric. The Scotts were resistant to Charles's religious policies as well as the English. Charles hadn't actually visited Scotland since he laughed and childhood, apart from his coronation and 1633, he had insisted that his carnation adhere to Anglican rights. In 1637, he ordered the use of a new prayer book in Scotland that was very similar to the English Book of Common Prayer with ICT consulting either the Scottish Parliament or the Karch. So he wants to impose a religious culture, which is not what the people of Scotland are used to or actually want. The book was written by Scottish bishops, but many sculpts viewed it as an attempt to impose agonism. In other words, a strand of English culture onto Scotland. The National Covenant of 1630. It was signed by many scholars who became known as sculpts covenant. Here's what the intention of upholding Scotland's reformed religious tradition. I'm resisting Charles's attempts to impose Africanism. The General Assembly of the Church of Scotland and 1638 rejected the new property, adopted a Presbyterian system of governance. And I N a Presbyterian system leaders were elected elders rather than royal appointees that were forced upon the membership, as was the case with the Episcopal are either CAN system. Trial saw this as a revolt and this led to the first bishops war. And 1639, he raised an army would like funding or input from Parliament and March to Barrack upon tweet on the Scottish border, the sculpts outnumbered his forces on Charles ordered his forces not to engage the covenant or the Treaty of Barrett guitar has some advantages, but also some real disadvantages. He got back his Scottish castles. The covenant is interim government was dissolved, but the Scottish parliaments on the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland were called and that wasn't. And Charles's and trust. The defeat at the first bishops War led to further international embarrassment for Charles. He was in financial trouble and tried to response from spin whilst he was still aiming to restore the Palatine to his sister's husband. This led to the humiliating battle of the dynes, in which the Dutch destroy the Spanish billion slate within sight of the English navy off the coast of Kent. Charles needed to secure a pace with the sculpts at this point. He was also forced to call parliament to raise money for new military campaigns. The parliaments of England and Ireland, or summons and 1640 and Mark 1640 hours Parliament provided a subsidy. I promised to raise an army of 9 thousand troops by the end of May. There was a general election in England and March and many court candidates, Charles's candidates did not do well. In fact, an impasse arose between Charles on Parliament. The arrows of North numberless and Stratford proposed a compromise to move things forward. Charles would forfeit ship money in exchange for £650 thousand, which was a huge amount of money, but the war was estimated to require £1 million. There was no consensus on this. Commons, on Charles rejected codes for further reforms since he had the support of the lords. The so-called short parliament was dissolved in May 1800s, less than a month after I had had convinced, despite objections from North Cumberland, Thomas went where the first Arlo Stratford have been Lord Deputy of Ireland's at 1632. And he progressed to become Charles's most influential adviser. Along with Laude. He pursued a policy of what he called Thera, a centralized par, operated by the monarch, very similar to absolute monarchy. Basically, the short parliaments failure encouraged the Scottish Parliament to proclaim it would govern with ICT the king. August 1648, the covenant or Army entered north Cumberland and the North of England. Charles and Stratford headed north to command the English army. Of those Trafford was L with guides on dysentery. The Scottish forces were victorious at the Battle of newborn and occupied New Castle upon time on County Durham. Calls for parliament to be summoned grow. Charles called a grid console of pairs and stat, and that was a traditional discussion of state affairs with landowners on church leaders. It met on the 24th of September 1640 at York, by which time Charles had decided to call the Parliament. He told the parents that Parliament would maintain November and asked for ideas of high, he could raise the necessary funds needed to fight the sculpts. Until then, they recommended pace and the treaty was signed in October 1640. It alarmed the sculpts to keep occupying North numberless and Durham and to be paid at a £150 a day until the English parliament met on a final settlement. Some could be a grade, so they're going to have to be paid to go away. Basically, the so-called long parliament was called on. Once again, Charles's candidates did badly. In fact, 350 of the 490 members of the House of Commons opposed the king. Let's talk about that infamous long parliament launched on the 3rd of November 16th, four-day, it began proceedings to have page Charles's key advisors for high treason. Stratford was imprisoned on the 10th of November. Laude was impeached on the 18th of December. The triennial Act was passed requiring parliament to meet every three years so the king could no longer dissolve Parliament. Well, that was a significant loss of par for the king. The Lord caper on 12 pairs could summon parliament if the king failed to do so, so it would always keep going. The Act came in tandem with a subsidy Bella on. So Charles was forced to give a sense in order to secure the money. Stratford was tried for high trays. And on the 22nd of March, 1641, the key allegation by Henry van was that Stratford had threatened to use the Irish army to subdue England, but this was not corroborate. Not now, the case was being led by a parliamentarian called John pen, and on the 10th of April, his case against Stratford collapsed. Pim and his associates then created a bill of attainder declaring Stratford guilty and sentencing him to death. Charles refused to give a sense of the bill of attainder, telling Stratford, upon the word of a king, you shall not suffer in life, honor or fortune on those were words that would haunt Charles later. Many MPs impairs also oppose the bill. One remark that they could not commit murder with the sort of justice. There was an attempted coup against parliament by royalist army officers with Charles is involvement, I'm not swayed the vote. The comments pass the bill on the 20th of April by a large margin, 204 and favorite 59 opposed on 230 upstanding on the Lord's actually concurrent by 26 votes to 19 with 79 opsins in May. An attempt to avert civil war was made on the Third of May with the protestation which attack Charles is arbitrary anti-hierarchical government, but the signatories agreed to honor the king's person honor, and a stent. They also swore to preserve the true reformed religion parliament on the rights and liberties of the subjects. Charles feared for his family at that point in the face of growing discontent, and signed the attainder on the ninth of May, after consulting judges on bishops, Stratford was accordingly beheaded on the 12th of May. Charles, also a sensitive and act the prohibited the dissolution of parliament with ICT part of metric consent. I'm not was a major concession, a major loss of par for Charles. He sustained other losses as well. Ship money finds and the strands of knighthood exercise without parliaments consent that the courts have star chamber on the High Commission has hold over justice and his ability to make money without parliament as really being challenged. The tonnage on poundage Act legalized, unregulated at taxes. Those attacking bishops on episcopacy failed to gain support on the Lord's, though. Charles visited Scotland from August to November 1641 and agreed to the establishment of Presbyterianism. Planned royalist coup known as the incident which included the proposed kidnapping of k Scottish Nobels, damaged Charles's credibility in Scotland. There was also a significant rebellion in Ireland during the reign of Charles the First. There were basically three main ethnic and political groups in Ireland. The Gaelic Irish on the old English, and the old English were descended from the Normans, the English having Bain and Ireland since the time of Henry the second, they practiced Catholicism. And then there were the protestant settlers who had started to live in Ireland during the reign of Elizabeth the 1st, and especially during the plantation of Ulster, which had occurred under James the sixth them first. And that was when a lot of protestant, English and Scottish settlers were purposefully placed in the North of Ireland. And they were given land that had previously belonged to the local Catholics, which caused a lot of bad feeling, which endures to this day. These new settlers where as I mentioned, Protestants and they identified with the English Parliament on the Scottish covenant. Stratford, when he was in Ireland, had improved the economy and Ireland and based on tax revenue, but he had taken a very heavy-handed approach to law and order on walls, unpopular. He had tried to Catholic army to support Charles the First. And he had awakened to the Irish parliament. He confiscated Catholic lab to accommodate protestant settlers, as I've just mentioned. Sometimes when I asked by English friends to talk about the situation Northern Ireland, I kind of describe the problems that began around this period of history like this. Imagine that you're sitting on your sofa and your living room having a cup of tea. I know that's anachronistic, but bear with me. You're sitting there with your family minding your own business when suddenly your next door neighbor comes over alliances that they own your highest and you have to get out of the living room because you're only allowed to sit in the cupboard under the stairs, the upstairs book stream. That is basically what happened to the Gaelic Irish at this point in history. Crawford promoted laws version of Anglican ism and that was despised by the Presbyterian settlers. So he's annoyed the Catholics and the Presbyterians nowhere and Ireland as he particularly popular. In fact, all the man's sociopolitical groupings and Ireland where disgruntled by Stratford. When Stratford was impeached, they all give evidence against him. The old English members of the hours parliament did not Stratford, but they claimed loyalty to Charles. They claim that Stratford on others had led the king astray and that Stanford's despotism was disconnected from Charles. That was nothing to do with him personally. So they have no beef with him. Staffers dawn, full high average did waken Charles's hold in Ireland. The English Parliament demanded the distillation of the Irish army three times during Stanford's imprisonment. Remember that one of the accusations they leveled at him was that he was going to use the Irish army to attack the English Parliament. Charles was eventually forced to disband it due to lack of funds. At the end of Stratford trial. Land disputes following the diamond of protestant settlers with lands taken from the net of catholics, especially during the connotation of Ulster, combined with procedures aimed to make the hours parliaments subordinate to that of England, latitude, Autolite rebellion. An armed conflict broke out between the Gaelic Irish and the new English. And October 1641, with the old English sided with the Gaelic Irish. Others still professing loyalty to Charles. In November 1641 and the English Parliament, the highest of Commons passed the ground remonstrance. And that was a comprehensive list of grievances regarding actions taken by Charles, his ministers, right the way back to the start of his Rin, Charles was portrayed as unwittingly being part of a Catholic plot. And it was proposed by John PIM. This ground remote strengths. But at past very slightly by only 11 votes, a 159 to 148. It had little support in the House of Lords because it attacked the House of Lords. The rebellion in Ireland, and which Charles erroneously thought to be complicit, his Catholic wife, his love of sacraments going against him once again, escalated alarm and England and pamphlets appeared throughout November 1641 depicting atrocities and Ireland and cutting massacres of the new English settlers by the Gaelic Irish, running wild eyed of control of their old English lords. Not, this was actually, not what was really going on. But you'll note that at this period in history, people do have knee-jerk reactions to remark on hearsay. Anti-catholic bias in England was increased. And that weekend, Charles's standing, Charles OS parliament for funds to put down the rebellion, but parliamentarians mistrusted his motives. They feared he might use the forces he assembled to attack parliament itself. Pim tried to introduce a militia belts, remove control of the army from Charles, but I had no support from the Lord's on the kegg would never give royal assent to such a belt. The Commons passed the bill as an ordinance though, which removed the need for royal assent, a major hit on Charles as par. As a result, more members of the Lords supported the kings. We have an impasse. Charles became unpopular and London when he placed the Tower of London under the control of Colonel Thomas Lunsford, who was well-known for his BAD temper and had attempted to murder a relative and his youth. He wasn't thought of as a trust where they type. That brings us to the infamous case of the five members. Charles heard rumors the parliaments and Tanja to impeach the Queen for supposedly colluding with ours Catholics. And he decided upon a drastic course of action. So another incidence of our response to rumors. He suspected perhaps correctly, that members of the English Parliament had colluded with the embedding Scott's on the 3rd of January 1642, he required parliament to surround or five members of the House of Commons, PIM Jon Huntsman, Denzel halls with him, stroke answer Arthur Hazel reg plus one pair. Edward Montague secondary loved Manchester, also known as Lord Mandeville, for high treason, the punishment for which was death. Parliament refused and Charles issued warrants for their arrest. Anyway, possibly influenced by Henrietta Maria. He hadn't tended to arrest them personally. But News of the World lakes and the members of skipped by boat, just before Charles answered the comments with an armed guard on the 4th of January 1642. And it was a very, very serious thing for a king to enter the House of Commons, which is just that the House of Commons, the king and the aristocracy are not meant to go in there. Charles displaced the speaker, William 42. The Interregnum : Now I become to the period known as the Commonwealth of England. Not to be mistaken with the current Commonwealth, which is a whole group of nations that used to belong to the former British empire brought together. This is a different, and today that existed after the execution of Charles the first, before the restoration of the monarchy. It was a kind of failed republican experiment in England. And the gentleman pictured here is a guy called Oliver Cromwell, who was later of parliament during the interregnum period. And as you can see from this slide, he had a very dim view of things like, well, having fun. Let's find out a little bit what life was like during the interregnum period. The Commonwealth of England or the interregnum period, meaning between kings, lasted from 1649 with the execution of Charles the first until 1660. During this period, England and Wales had no monarchy, or those Scotland dead actually acknowledge the kingship of Charles the second. But that doesn't wash with Cromwell, as we'll say, Scotland and Ireland were eventually also governed as a republic. It's also known as the British and direct them. And it was led by Oliver Cromwell, as we mentioned from 165350 it, and then his son Richard Cromwell from 165859. And then the whole thing started to pretty much unraveled. This all took place after the execution of Charles the first. On the 19th of May 1649, the Rump Parliament declared an act declaring England to be a Commonwealth. And what exactly did that mean? Well, in the early Commonwealth, power resided with Parliament and the Council of states. So there was no monarch. Fighting from the Civil War continued though, especially in Scotland and Ireland, between parliamentary courses and those opposed parliament. This was known as the third English Civil War. The rug parliament was dissolved in 1553 and the army console bed. Oliver Cromwell, lord protector of what was called the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. And that began a period nine, known as a protectorate. When Cromwell died, his son Richard route for a brief time. So he left his title onto his son signs bit like a monarchy, doesn't it? Then the Protectorate parliament was dissolved in 1659 and the rubber parliament recalls. This process eventually led to the restoration of the monarchy and 1616, because there is no stability and government. The term commonwealth or interregnum is sometimes used for the whole period between 16491660, although some historians use it to refer to the time before Chrome well, as same part in 1553. Just in case you're reading about this period and you get a bit confused, which can happen. Let's attempt to the Republic was overall a failure as note, government lasted for more than a few months at a time and very little legislation was passed and the resulting parliaments, although some of the things that were initiated around this time had repercussions for other on in history. For example, it's around this time that we have the beginnings of the constitutional monarchy that we have today. What kept the whole thing going at the time was basically crumbles own personality that says strong and forceful personality. He asserted control using the new model army. And that was the army of the parliamentarians during the Civil War. It was a new model and that members were expected to serve anywhere in the country, not just in their local garrison. It was a different way of creating an army that had been used before. When Chrome, well dydt, the Commonwealth didn't long ICT love him. After the monarchy was restored. Constitutional reforms from the Republican period where a rest. Despite this, the parliamentarian cars called the good old cause by veterans of the new Model Army was still remembered and eventually lead to constitutional monarchy. And as we mentioned earlier, a constitutional monarchy means that the monarch is a figurehead, someone who represents the culture and traditions and history of the country, but doesn't actually hold political party. In England, the commonwealth period brought Naval victories, especially if the Dutch under Robert Blake and victory in the first Anglo Dutch War, which marks the start of England's naval supremacy in Europe. And its naval row was a pretty key attributes of England in European history. Ireland it brought atrocities arising from Chromebooks, brutal subjugation of the Irish. In fact, 200 thousand to 600 thousand civilian casualties took place through military action and violence of famine and disease. And this is very much remembered in Ireland today when I lived in London. It was traditional for some Irish folk to go and spit on by statute of Cromwell outside Westminster if they happen to be there. By the way, I'm a new way condoning public expectation. I simply tell the story to point out that there's still a strong feeling about Cromwell in Ireland. Now let's talk a little bit applied the Rump Parliament, the ramp was created by prides purge of those members of a long parliament. He didn't support the political position of the ground days and the new model army. If he didn't like what the army were doing, you were just before Charles suppress was executed on shortly afterwards, the Rump Parliament passed Act which created the basis for our republic. It abolished the monarchy, the House of Lords on the Privy Council. And so had unchallenged on unbalanced par. The English Council of State replace the private counsel. I was mostly made up of and paste. The rump depended on the support of the new Model Army, which could sometimes be problematic as the relationship between the rump on the army was at time strand. The rump proclaimed that the people of England and of all the dominions and territories there onto belonging where to be governed in what was called a commonwealth, meaning a republic. Price per CH had removed and pays members of parliament, mostly Presbyterians, who had not wanted Charles the first to be tried. This meant that the Rump Parliament was small, with less than 200 members, less than half the former membership of parliament. The new body included Presbyterians who were happy to go along with the execution of the king. And leveler sympathizers. And levelers were people who wanted religious tolerance, popular sovereignty, greater suffrage on equality under the law, which all seems perfectly reasonable to us, but was considered pretty radical at the time. Formerly excluded and pays who denotes the Newport treaty negotiations with Charles the First we're allowed to retain their seats. Most members were from the gentry, although there were more lawyers and less well-off gentry than there have been before. This meant that the rump was a pretty conservative institution who were unlikely to reform things like land ownership or the legal system because that would adversely impact the MPs themselves. There was an economic depression for the first two years of the Commonwealth, and there was also a threat of invasion by Scotland and Ireland. So things were pretty unstable. Chromo on the Army eliminated the invasion threats by 1653. However, members of the rump disagreed over what systems should replace the motorcade. Some wanted an all white Republican, whilst others wanted some form of monarchy. The rump did however, stand in the way of an all light military dictatorship. Other, it was viewed by the aristocracy and other parts of the establishment as an illegal government which had unlawfully committed register. The killing of a king and in thinkable crime. The January resented the high taxes imposed by the Rump Parliament to pay for the army. Whilst the ruling classes were alienated, the reforms met where not enough to please radicals. So the Parliament doesn't really keep anybody happy. By 1653 though, France and span who had been at war with England, recognized the new government in England. Although very little legislation was passed in this period, there were some reforms, chiefly to appease the new model army, the act of uniformity, 1550, it was repealed and 1650, and that allowed for grid or religious freedom, other tolerance of independent churches. Although the Church of England remained the established church and people paid 10% of their income. Notice a tie to maintain it. Court proceedings NIH has to be conducted in English rather than French or Latin. Although common law was not reformed because it reinforced the astounding and property rights of the gentry. And many MPs were generally, of course, the rump was keenly interested in people's morality. And so it Bob the theta, and this is the country of Shakespeare and Marlowe, required the strict observance of a Sabbath day of rest on Sunday. She would be in trouble if he were thought to be doing unnecessary work on a Sunday. In fact, there were many things you couldn't do, especially under Cromwell. Chroma was a strict Puritan. Puritans believed in the value of hard work and fun. Well, a lot of people's perception of fun didn't really tell you what the idea of hard work. He closed down theaters, playing football on a Sunday was punishable with a whipping. And women doing work deemed unnecessary on a Sunday could be put in stocks. And we've talked before a high that wasn't accommodate thing that was really deeply unpleasant. You could be fined for going for a Sunday walk. And one day a month was a fast day. Faster as well and good. What we don't like as feasting are certain kinds of faces. That one thing that was bombed during this period, but it's very hard for us to understand. And the modern age is Christmas. On the 19th of December, 1643 on Ordinance was passed encouraging subjects to treat the mid-winter period with the more solemn humiliation, because it may well called remembrance our sins and the sins of our forefathers. We have turned this face to pretending the memory of Christ into an extreme forgetfulness of him by giving liberty to carnal on central delights. Christmas is light then Christmas and other religious festivals were banned. That wasn't taught to Chrome well personally on this occasion, but his policies led to the cessation of the celebration of Christmas and that led to pro Christmas riots. People, we're not going to give up Christmas easily. You know the phrase, your doses cooked. Well, it comes from this period of history because we'll just have the policies. Christmas dinners. Their traditional dinner at that period for Christmas was cooked goose. If they smelled, you could get a ghost and they thought you might be celebrating Christmas, you were in trouble and decorations such as Holly were banned. Know, Holly represents the crown of thorns that Christ war on the cross with the red berry being the drops of his blood cell walls. Christian symbolism. And it's hard for us to understand. I agree with Christians are bonding Christmas, but the Puritans, well, they were pretty extreme. Too much money was spent on it. And also people drank a lacZ on word gluttonous and Atlanta to being sinful and their opinion. Another thing that was found was makeup on women were required to dress modestly. So just could actually scrub the faces of women caught wearing makeup. So you could just be walking along and some soldiers could drop your hands and scrub your face, which is pretty much a form of assault. Puritan women wore long black dresses and period's demand were black and had short hair, as you see in the picture here. You couldn't say that Chrome well himself never have any fun. He liked music, hunting and bowls, and his daughter is known to have had lavish entertainments at her wedding. Chrome OS attitude towards fun met him very unpopular people didn't like being told that they couldn't celebrate Christmas or go to the theatre. For example. Ny, Let's talk about Chrome well, at the Rump Parliament, Chrome well, edit by Major General Thomas Harrison, who's one of the signatories of Charles, the first death warrant dismissed the Rump Parliament on the 20th of April, 1653. We're uncertain what the reasons behind the square, but it's thought that they anticipated an election that might return an anti Commonwealth majority. It's also possible that Chrome welfare, the RAF, was trying to become a perpetual government. The rump considered this dissolution unlawful based on an act of parliament that was passed during the time of Charles the first prohibiting the dissolution of parliament without parliaments consent, no one was meant to have enough power to dissolve parliament on their own. For a short time, Cromwell and the army ruled alone. Nobody had the legal right to call an election. Chromo did not want to ruled by a military dictatorship and established a nominated assembly with members nominated by the Army. This was known as bare-bones parliaments, and it came into being on the fourth of July 1653. It was opposed by former members of the Rump Parliament and derive it by the gentry as being full of lower-class individuals. 110 to 140 members were actually minor gentry or up higher social status. In reality, many were well-educated. The nickname of the assembly. At the barebones Parliament came from a Baptist leather merchant on preacher called praise God barebone who was a member. So that's how it got its name. Its members included proponents of an extreme Puritan sect. Notice the fifth monarchists who wanted a repudiation of English common law and no state control of religion. These radicals were nominated by army officers and they number two by 48. There were also around 16 moderates who wanted the existing system to be reformed and might side with either radicals or conservators depending on the particular issue. There were about 40 conservatives and wanted to maintain common law and cleaning types on the land rights of the gendering. Chrome also a bare-bones parliament as temporary. He hoped it would come up with a constitution for the Commonwealth, but it lacked experience, which was a pretty big problem. Few members had legal training and the members disagreed on key issues. This was not the group of people who were going to create solid Constitution. Chroma provided little guidance to the parliament, which was another problem. The radicals to faded a bell, preserving the religious status quo with the Church of England as the established church and lesser rights for other groups. At this point, the conservatives, moderates handled their authority to Cromwell and response. So Cromwell is not a very powerful individual. He sent soldiers and cleared like the assembly and the barebones parliaments and beginning the Protectorate. Let's talk now about the protectorate, which lasted from 165359. On the 20th of April, 1653, chroma and the Army dissolved the Council of State, which had replaced the monarch and the Privy Council. So it was a very powerful institution. A new kinds of was appointed, made up of Cromwell appointees. Also in 1653, major General John Lambert drafted the instrument of government, which was a constitution for the Commonwealth. The Protectorate started to emerge. Cromwell was mid lord protector and he had a broad scope of pars. Ironically, these parts were very similar to those of the monarchy. So what was happening in Scotland at this time? Well, chromo proclaimed that Scotland would be in a union with England under the April 1654 ordinance for uniting Scotland into one Commonwealth with England. This was declared in Scotland by its military governor General George monk. First week of Albemarle. You could have arms for the Commonwealth was created incorporating the traditional heraldic symbol of Scotland, the cell tire saying here it's the blue background with the white X. Scotland. It was to be placed on all the public sales, sales of office and the sales of bodies Civil a corporate and Scotland as a badge of this union. So under Charles the First, they're happy to a personal union. And it's really at this point that the two states become one political and state. Chroma and the Council of State prepared Eddie for bills for the protectorates. First parliament. The parliament was elected in the 17th century. There were a lot of people who couldn't vote. It wasn't a democracy as we know it today. In fact, a whole saturate letter and 1760, only 3% of the population could vote. If you were a woman or common peasants, you hadn't emission of voting at this point in history. Nevertheless, the vote return to broad spectrum of interests and so achieved little of Chrome wells goes, it passed none of chromosomes both and so he dissolved as soon as legally possible. You'll note he's behaving in a very similar manner to Charles the first whom he had wanted executed dissolving parliament that well, when it doesn't do his bidding. Chromo then decided to push through his policies by a military real and what is now known as the rule of the major general. They could collect taxes aren't enforced pace. The major generals were very unpopular. Many of them urged chromo to call another Parliament in order to legitimize the parts they have been given. Unlike the last parliament, this election was run with the explicit row, but Catholics and royalists be excluded from running or from voting. Let's help Chrome well, to work with a parliament more in line with his own political thinking. The first boat pass through parliament was the militia bill. And it was intended to legitimize the parts of the manager generals, but it failed and the major generals could no longer collect taxes. The next important legislation was the humble petition of advice. And that was a sweeping constitutional reform into giving Parliament's rights such as a three-year fixed term. And so rights over taxation, that taking away the par, of the Lord protector or the military over taxation was a pretty big loss of par for Chrome well, and his cronies. The title of Lord protector, was to be met hereditary in much the same matter as a monarch. So again, Chrome well had so wanted to be rid of Charles the first replaces him himself to become a figure who was very similar. Chromo refused the title of king, beta constitutional one, but except that the rest of the humble petition, which passed on the 25th of May 1657, at a second session of this particular parliament took place in 1650. It MPs with Catholic or royalist connections world lied to take their seats again. This meant Parliament was less amenable to Chrome well, at this point of the major generals as well. And it was dissolved after only a few months without accomplishing Chrome wells legislative agenda. Oliver Cromwell died in 1658 on his son Richard inherited the title of Lord protector, and very much the same way as our crown is passed on to the next generation. Richard hadn't served in the Army and so lost control of the manager generals who had been the rate of his father's par. The third protectorate parliament sat on the 27th of January, 1659, and it confirmed Richard is protected by a majority, but not a big majority. His PAR was tenuous. Divisions within parliament soon appeared. Some MPs called for a return to the Rump Parliament, whilst others wants to be intend the current constitution of the time. As the parties agree more fractious, Richard decided to dissolve parliament. He was removed from power and the Army recalled Rump Parliament. This is the beginning of the end of the republican period. Charles fleet, which was appointed Lord general meeting commander-in-chief of the army. He was also a member of the Council of State, the powerful ruling council. His power was undermined though, because Parliament did not fully recognize the authority of the army. The 12th October 1659, the House of Commons dismissed General John Lambert and others and disgrace and appointed fleet with as head of the military council answerable to the Speaker. Neither speaker is the person who is almost like a referee between the parties and the highest of comments whose job it is to keep order. The next day Lambert had the doors of the House of Commons shot on the members kept ICT. On the 26th of October, Fleetwood and Lambert were both appointed to a committee of safety. Lambert became manager general of all military forces in England and Scotland with Fleetwood as general. Lambert was sent by the Committee of safety to negotiate with George monk, the military governor of Scotland, or force him to come to terms. Monk March south with a Scottish army. Lambert army mostly deserted and he returned to London. All the 21st February 1616, monk reinstated the Presbyterian members of the long parliament, secluded or got rid off by pride so that they could prepare legislation for a new parliament. Fleetwood was stripped of his command and summoned before parliament to explain his conduct. Lambert was sent to the tar, but escaped a month later. He tried to rekindle the Civil War, calling old supporters of the good old cause, the parliamentary calls to rally on the battlefield of Agile, but he was captured by Colonel Richard ankles pay a confounder and the new model army. And one of the commissioners who had signed Charles the first death warrant, it was becoming clear that it was quite likely there was going to be a restoration of the monarchy. And Charles the second Charles the first son, was going to view angled space as a register. So he hoped to gain a pardon by handing over Lambert to the new regime. The long parliament dissolved at self on the 16th of March, 1660. The restoration of the monarchy took place on the 4th of April, 1660. And response to a secret message sent by monk Charles the second issued the Declaration of brighter, which may have known that the conditions of his acceptance of the crime of England, monk organized a Convention Parliament, which first met on the 25th of April, 1660. It was voted for by a free election. I was made up of many royalists on the 8th of May at proclaimed that King Charles the Second had been the lawful monarch since the execution of his father Charles the First. January 1649. Charles the second return from exile on the 23rd of May. He entered London on his birthday, the 29th of May, and to celebrate his Majesty's returned to Parliament, the 29th of May was made a public holiday, popularly known as restoration or oak apple day. Charles the second was crying at Westminster Abbey on the 23rd of April, 1661. 43. Charles II and the Restoration: So after the interregnum period, the monarchy was restored. And this is the guy who came to the throne, Charles the second, known as the merry monarch or the party king. This was because as we heard earlier, Chrome, well headband, things like Christmas and the theater. I'm Charles brought those things back so people had a bit more fun. But also Charles himself like to have some fun as we're a bite to hear. Prince of many virtues are many grit imperfections, webinar, AAC of access, not bloody or krill. That said John Evelyn who was Charles as contemporary, a gardener and a direst. And this is the kind of picture of Charles that we get from history, the kind of lovable rogue that he had, his imperfections. But people tend to be quite fond of him. Not everybody was a found though restless. He rose from horror to H4, a merry monarch, scandalous and PR, that said John Wilmot, who was a poet on the second arm of Rochester, NY. It so happens that Princess Diana was descended from two of the 12 legitimate children that child's acknowledged. And so Prince William may actually become the first British monarch descended from Charles the second. Let's hear a little bit more about the merry monarch who lived from the 29th of May 1630 until the fifth of February 1685. He random England from the 29th of May, 1668 until his death. He didn't rinse along and Scotland though he was King of Scotland from the 30th of January 1649, the day that his father was executed, until the third of September 1651. We're going to find out later why his tenure in Scotland, while so short, he had no errors, no legitimate children, but he had at least 12 illegitimate children are 12, but he acknowledged he was the eldest surviving child, or Charles the First on Henrietta Maria of fronts. After his father's execution, Scotland proclaimed Him king, but England entered into the English and direct them periods, the commonwealth period. When Cromwell defeated Charles the second at the Battle of WR on the 3rd of September 1651. He fled to exile in Europe, spending nine years in fronts, the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands. Chrome while then assumed par and England, Scotland and Ireland. When Chrome we'll devote the Commonwealth couldn't survive him at a basically been his personality that held the thing together. And so Charles was invited to return on his 30th birthday, the 29th of May, 1660, and he was welcomed by the public in London. Legal documents, though he did at the start of his ran to the death of his father and 1649 because he believed he had always been the rightful king. Charles favored a policy of religious tolerance, but agree to the English Parliament, Clarence, on code which reinforced the position of the re-established Church of England. The second I'd go Dutch War faced him quite early in his ranch. Although he's the party king, It's not like he doesn't have problems. He entered into an alliance with his cows and Louis the 14th in France in 1670. And Louis agreed to airtime and the third Anglo Dutch War and also pay them a pension on the condition that he's secretly convert to Catholicism in the future. And Catholicism is still very, very unpopular in England, and especially in Parliament. Charles tried to introduce freedom for Catholics and dissenters and the royal declaration of indulgence in 1672, but the English Parliament rejected it. And then the exclusion crisis broke out in 1679, when the minister Titus oats revealed the supposedly plot. And it was revealed that james Duke of York, Charles's air, had converted to Catholicism. Deeply, deeply unpopular move with the public on with parliament. This led to the foundation of the two men parliamentary parties that we had for centuries, the Whigs who were pro exclusion and the anti exclusion Tories. Now, today we use the term Torah to refer to the conservative party. But it was initially a term that was used for AMT, exclusion and pays during the row of Charles the Second, charles actually favored the Tories. Obviously he didn't want his brother's be excluded from the succession. Several Whig leaders were executed or exile after the ri, highest plot murderer charles on jams and 1683, Charles dissolve the English Parliament and 1681 and ruled alone until his death in 1685. Remember his father had been executed for seeking to have more power than parliament. This was quite a bold move. He reportedly converted to Catholicism on his deathbed. He told Louis that he would convert to Catholicism when it was safe for his country to do so. This was a way of technically carrying out his word if he didn't date convert on his death bed. We don't know that for sure. Charles the second is thought of as a popular king, as we've mentioned before, notice the party king and the merry monarch. Here is the Horrible Histories depiction of Charles the second, here below us. Now, you've probably noticed during this video that at this period in history, the well-to-do and public figures really did love big hair and large wigs. His court was known for its viciousness and hedonism, very, very different from the Puritan regime of Cromwell. Charles was succeeded by his brother James in the end. Let's hear a little bit about the early life of Charles the second. Charles the second was born in James's Palace on the 29th of May 1630. His mother, Henrietta Maria, was the sister of Louis the 13th of France. Charles was his parents second child, their first son, happy, born a year earlier, but sadly died aged only one day. At that time, England was mostly Anglican, Scotland was Presbyterian and Ireland was Catholic. So Charles was baptized as an Anglican and the Chapel Royal on the 27th of June 1630 by William Lord visited London, whom Charles the First, later appointed Archbishop of Canterbury. And 1633, Charles the second was raised by the Protestant contents of dorsal. But remember we said that who the godparents of a child, our makes a statement. Well, Charles did have catholic godparents, including Louis the 13th and his maternal grandmother, Miranda muddy che, the dietary Queen of France. Charles became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Roth say, which was the title of the heir apparent to the throat of Scotland. At birth. He was named Prince of Wales when he was eight. I though he never had a formal investiture as Prince of Wales due to the Civil War. Presumably. They English Civil War ridged and the 1830s, Charles accompanied his father during the Battle of add till. He was made titular commander of the forces in the West country when he was aged only 14, Charles was evacuated from England when his father started losing the war. And the spring of 1646, he was sent to the eyes of silly and then to Jersey and finally to France. His mother was already in France. It was ruled by Charles, his cousin at that point, the eight-year-old Louis, the 14th. Charles the First Charles the second is father, of course, syringe into captivity. And May 16, 46. In 1648, Charles the second move to the Hague. And he did this because the English Civil War was ongoing. And Charles, his sister Mary, was married to William the second Prince of Orange, and they seemed more supportive of English royalists than his French relatives did. Charles assumed control of a thiolate, but it was defeated by the parliamentarians at the Battle of pressed on. During his time in the Hague, Charles had an affair with a Welsh lady called Lucy Walter, sometimes referred to as Lucy Walters. She falsely claimed they had married. She gave birth to Charles, his son James Croft, who later became Duke of Monmouth and Jacob Barclay. Charles tried to find a diplomatic way to save his father, but Charles the first was executed on the 30th of January 1649. England then became a republic for a time for by 11 years. All the fifth of February, the Scottish Parliament proclaimed the young Charles King of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, but it refused to allow him to enter Scotland unless he accepted the imposition of Presbyterianism. Three ight Britain and Ireland. Negotiations with the Scots didn't progress on Charles sat general Montrose, James Graham first mark was if maltose, to the Orkney Islands to threaten uninvited of Scotland, night Mont Rose feared, but Charles would compromise with the sculpts, which he really didn't want. He also wanted to advance Charles, the First somebody launched an attack on men on scotland with ICT Charles's consent. He was captured on sentenced to death by the Scottish Parliament and Attenborough, his head was removed and stood on the ***** on the highest stone of the oto, both besides giants as cathedral from 1650 until the beginning of 1651, it must have been well rotted and pretty disgusting that point. His body was exempt and 1661 and the head reattached for a reverent barrier. Charles agree to abide by the Treaty of breeder, which he had made with the Scottish Parliament. And thoughts support from the solemn leg and covenant, which stand from an agreement between Scottish cabinet matters and the English Parliament in 1643 and add to spread Presbyterian or elected church governance across Britain. The 23rd of June, 1650, he officially acknowledged the covenant, which won him support and Scotland, but left him unpopular in England. Charles came to low the covenant. There's heme accused of villainy and hypocrisy. Charles had a CT and Scotland on his household expenses from that time still survived today. On the 3rd of September 1650, the covenant hers were defeated at the Battle of Dunbar by a much smaller force lab by Oliver Cromwell. The sculpts forces were divided into royalist and getters on Presbyterian covenant authors who even fought each other. Charles attempted to skip from the covenant and headed north to try and join the integers and an episode notice the start, but he was captured within days. Nevertheless, the Scots from med Charles is best hope for restoration. And he was crying King of Scotland, that's going up on the 1st of January 1651, Cromwell threatened Charles's position and Scotland, and an attack on England was planned. With many of the sculpts including Archibald Campbell, Lord Argyle, the de-facto leader of the government and other leading Kevin enters refusing to participate in this attack in England. With few English Royal is joining the force as it moved south into England. The invasion ended in defeat at the Battle of WR on the 3rd of September 1651. With many narrow escapes, which apparently Charles loved to talk to people about for the rest of his life. After six weeks, Charles fled England and disguise and landed and normal day on the 16th of November, 1651. Disguising Charles was not a simple thing to do because he was over six foot tall, which was very unusual in his day. He was instantly recognizable. Cromwell became Lord protector of England, Ireland, and Scotland. And 1653, placing the British Isles under military rule. Trials lift the head and mystic life just outside Paris with a monthly income supplied by Louis the 14th. At this time, he couldn't find financial backing or support to challenge Chrome well, despite Charles has found they can actions his mother being a member of the French royal family, as we recall, the French and the Dutch allied with Chrome. Well, in 1654, Charles was forced to leave France and looked to spend for help. At that time span road, the southern Netherlands. Trials agreed the Treaty of Brussels with span and 1656. And which span are great to add Charles's restoration if he would help them in their war against France. Charles Ray's the Shopee army from among his followers in exile, which was small, poorly equipped, badly disciplined, and underpaid. The commonwealth signed the Treaty of Paris in 1657, promising to add fronts against the Dutch and Spanish. So we have Chrome well on France on one side span, on Charles, all the other. Royalists supporters and the Spanish forests were led by Charles is younger brother, James Duke of York, who would later become king James the seventh second. About lagoons and 1658, Charles's forces of a byte 2 thousand troops fought for the Spanish. And so engaged with commonwealth troops who were fighting for the French. It's a bit like the British Civil War and the Europe. Charles lost half is man in the Battle of Dunkirk was given to the English, a royalist campaign, and England was impossible at that time. Let's talk about a key moment in the life of Charles the second, under the history of England. And that is the restoration. When Richard Cromwell succeeded his father, Oliver Cromwell in 1658. Restoration of the monarchy licked unlike pay for Charles at that point, Richard had no military experience though, and the minister the experience. So he didn't run a tight ship basically. In 1659, the Rump Parliament was recalled and Richard resigned. The military governor of Scotland, George monk fair, the onslaught of anarchy. Monk in his army marched into the city of London, unforced the Rump Parliament to readmit members of the long Parliament had been excluded. And December 1648, during prides purge, long parliament decided to dissolve on the first general election and 20 years was held. The art going Parliament and to facilitate the return of a Presbyterian majorly, the parliament was returned with had a fairly even number of agriculture and Presbyterians and royalists on parliamentarians. It was called the Convention Parliament and at met for the first time on the 25th of April, 1660. Welcome, Charles is declaration of Breda which promised lenient on tolerance. There would be more freedom of conscience and the applicant established church would not an OCT, harsh policies. Charles would not exile former adversaries or confiscate their property. Register sides, however, those who had signed the death warrant of Charles the first would not be pardoned. The most important promise was that Charles Wood ran and cooperation with parliament. The English Parliament proclaimed Charles as king and invited him to return a message that rate Charles at Breda and the Netherlands on the 8th of May 1660. I convention that Ireland had already decided to ask Charles to assume kingship. And he was proclaimed king of Ireland on the 14th of May, 1660. And Dublin, Charles left chevron eigen near The Hague and arrived in Dover on the 25th of May 1660. He reached London on his 30th birthday. Acid happened the 29th of May, 1660. Most of Chrome, While supporters were granted amnesty by Charles and Parliament, but 50 individuals were excluded and nine registers were executed by hanging, drawing, and quartering. The most severe punishment that could be made of ICT. Others who were excluded were in prison for life are barred from public office. The corpses of Oliver Cromwell, henry Artin chromo, son-in-law and a general and the parliamentary army. John Bradshaw, who have been President of the High Court of Justice, which had tried Charles the First were subjected to posthumous decapitation. Parliament gave Charles the second is an annual income of 1.2 million to fund the government. That was mostly raised from customs and excise Judy's, but it wasn't a sufficient amount of money. And so Charles cut his household budget, but introduced unpopular income raising strategies such as a hearth tax. And that meant that you paid a tax for a chart that you have in your home. The wealthier you are, the bigger that your highest walls, the more you are going to pay. So it was basically a tax on wealth. In 1660, Charles, his brother Henry and Sister Mary died of smallpox. Jim's secretly married a lady called unhide pictured here on. She was daughter of the Lord Chancellor Edward Hyde, and she was pregnant with James's child at the time. Albert Hein hadn't known of the pregnancy. And he was created olive Clarendon and he was Charles's favorite minister and a relative. Of course, you would imagine that the Clarendon code was named after Karen's on which it is, but parents and actually didn't have that much to do with it. The Convention Parliament was dissolved and December 1660 and quickly followed by a new English parliament known as the Cavalier parliaments and Cavaliers royalists. It was made up of a royalist majorly it and to discourage non-conformity and past several acts to secure the status of the Church of England. Municipal office holders were made to swear allegiance, to use the Book of Common Prayer became compulsory and only Anglicans could hold religious assemblies of more than five people. Non-conforming clergy who had been expelled were not large, come within five miles of the parish from which they have been rejected. That was known as the five mile rule. They act which initiated these reforms became known as the Clarendon code, ignored client that was not responsible for them, and spoke out against the five-mile act. The prohibition of assemblies of more than five on the five-mile act remained enforced through to Charles's ran. Social change began to take place after the restoration, filters reopened and the body is slightly smutty genre of restoration comedy emerged. An example of this would be willing to, whichever leaves the country wife. Charles required that female roles played by female performers, whereas in the past, female roles have been played by boys. Rasterization literature praised the new court. The poet John Wilmot, second Darla of Rochester said, we have a pretty witty King who's worth Domain relies on. He never said a foolish thing and never did a wise one, but Charles had a good answer for that. He said that the matter was easily a concept for, for that his discourse was his own, his actions. Whereas Ministries, there were a couple of significant disasters during the reign of Charles the second, the grid plague on the grid Fire of London. The grid plague was an outbreak of bubonic plague, and it struck London in 1665 to six and killed 7 thousand people awake. By the 17th of September 1665, Charles and his family, along with the rest of the court, flat to solve spray and July, parliament started meeting an Oxford so dangerous that they think that London walls numbers of player case is reduced in the winter and Charles returned to London and February 1666. But there was another disaster to come. The Great Fire of London started on the second of September 1666. And there are signs of the grid fire. And modern London today, if you ever do the Buster and London, you'll hear a lot of bidet. It began in the bay kinds of putting Lin after a smell of hot and dry weather. Strong Easterly went fanned the flames which began in the big house and caught stockpiles of words which have been intended as winter few 13,200 houses and add a seven churches, including St. Paul's Cathedral, were destroyed. Charles and his brother James joined and directed the firefighting efforts. Catholic conspirators were blamed for the fire. And a French watchmaker called Rebecca, who bear, made a false confession of starting the fire almost. No. It's thought that his confession was done to some kind of attention seeking, but he came to be behind that. Although some people believe he may have been tortured. Let's talk a little bit about Charles's marriage on foreign policy, because my origin, foreign policy, as we note this period in history are closely linked. Portugal had been fighting span for independence since 1640. France had helped Portugal but abandoned its ally in 1659, negotiations with Portugal for Charles, his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, NSA began during his father's rib and upon the restoration, queen Luisa of Portugal re-opened communication with England and formed an alliance. A marriage treaty was signed on the 23rd of June 1661. Catherine Story was pretty significant and included tangier at the seven islands of Bombay. And this was a first stage of the British Empire is presence in India. Charles also acquired trading privileges and Brazil, on the east end days, religious and commercial freedom. And Portugal on 2 million Portuguese crimes, which was about 300 thousand pints. Portugal again, military and naval support against spin. And Catherine was granted freedom of worship, so she didn't have to become a protestant to be the Queen of England. Catherine arrived at Portsmouth in mid-May, but Charles didn't come to meet her until the 20th of May and married her the next day. And a secret Catholic service, and then an official public Anglican service. Later that year, Charles sold dumb character Louis the 14th in France for 375 thousand, which was an unpopular decision. He did this because the port was strategic, but it costs too much to run. The Navigation Acts of 1650 have given the English tread vessels a monopoly which disadvantaged the Dutch. The Dutch War broke ICT on lasted from 1650 to 1654. To try and repair relations, the Dutch Estates-General sent the Dutch gift a collection of 24th, mostly Italian Renaissance paintings, but for by Dutch masters as well, and 12 classical sculptures. That gift was presented to newly restored Charles on the 16th of November. And you can see one of the paintings from the Dutch gift pictured below. The second dutch war was fought from 1665 to 1667. It started when they English attempted to acquire Dutch possessions and Africa and North America. The English acquired New Amsterdam, which is a little Pierce, now known as New York. After James Duke of York. The English were also victorious at the Battle of low staffed and June 1665, the Dutch that launched a surprise attack. Notice the rate of Midway and 1667, sailing up the River Thames to the place where a large part of the English fleet was docked. They sank all the ships apart from the flagship, the Royall Charles, which they took back to the Netherlands as a trophy. The Treaty of Breda and the second Dutch War. Charles use Lord current and as a scapegoat for the war and dismissed him. Clinton was impeached for high treason and fled to France. Five politicians then came apart. Notice the cabal night, you may have heard the term Kabbalah used and say crime dramas or in modern politics to describe a powerful ruling cake. But the original cabal were Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley, and Lauderdale. The cobalt split into two factions led by Arlington and Buckingham. And arlington was the more successful. In 1668, England allied itself with Sweden above its former anime, the Netherlands, to oppose Louis the 14th and the war of devolution, louis mid paste, but he continued to grass upon the Netherlands. In 1678, charles tried to solve his financial problems by agreeing to the Treaty of Dover with Louis the 14th. It was a great that he would be paid 160 thousand per atom and exchange for trips and his conversion to Catholicism as soon as the welfare of his kingdom will permit. And we heard earlier a high, perhaps he converted on his deathbed because that would be a sentence it was safe for the kingdom, which would have been technically keeping his word. Louis was to supply 6 thousand trips to counter those who might oppose conversion. We don't know whether Charles was really serious about converting, but we know that he had never to ensure that the training remained secret. Charles granted the East India Company phenomenal pars, the rights to autonomous government of its territorial acquisitions, to make money, to command fortresses and trips, to form alliances, to make war and peace, and to exercise both civil and criminal justice and its possessions. And the end days, Charles had already least the islands of Bombay to the company for £310 and gold, which was a nominal Some, he abandoned Tangier and 1684 as it was too expensive to run. 1670, Charles gave control of the Hudson Bay drainage basin to the Hudson's Bay Company by royal charter. He named the territory reports land after his cousin Prince report of the Rhine, the company's first governor who had fought with his father. Let's talk a little bit about Charles on parliaments my after what had happened to his father, you'd think that Charles would be quite wary of Parliament, but he also had a strand relationship with parliament at times. Charles alienated the Cavalier parliament j to the wars he engaged and add his religious policies. The 1672 royal declaration of indulgence announced his intention to suspend penal laws against Catholics and religious dissenters. He supported Catholic France, and it started the third Anglo Dutch War. Parliament argued that the king did not have the power to suspend laws made by Parliament. Charles had to withdraw the declaration, I can say to the test Act, which required public officials to take Anglican Communion. Later, they were required to deny its key ideas of Catholicism, such as masks and transubstantiation as superstitious and idolatrous. Thomas Clifford, the first paren Clifford of Charlie was an MPH Chief Minister and Lauren hi Treasurer who resigned due to the slot and eventually he committed suicide. By 1670 for the uncle Dutch War proved fruitless and Parliament refused to keep funding it, forcing Charles to make peace. Thomas Osborne first Jacob, late loners, Lord downbeat, replace Clifford on the power of the cabal lessened. Lord Dhabi faced opposition in parliament and the court. Both politicians and pears fair that Charles wanted to imitate the absolute latest Catholic sovereignty of his cousin Louis the 14th in France and were uncomfortable with his pro French foreign policy. Between 16751678, many pamphlets and speeches reflected this concern. Another threat to political stability was that Queen Catherine had been pregnant four times, but hadn't produced an heir. Certainly. James Duke of York was conflict and therefore unpopular with the public, and he was Charles's heir presumptive. Because the Catholicism of members of the royal family was an issue with the public. Charles married his daughter, married to the Protestant William of Orange. N6 178 types out to have been an IVR. Can a judgment praised, falsely reported a so-called Polish plot to assassinate the king, even accusing the queen of being involved. Charleston believe the allegations but ordered his Chief Minister, Lord downbeat, to investigate, was skeptical. But parliament seemed to give credence to the clamps, anti-Catholic hysteria and the words of Wikipedia took hold. Suppose a conspirators were tried and many innocent people were executed. Dante was impeached for high treason by the House of Commons. And 1670 it. Charles had secretly negotiated with Louis the 14th, promising neutrality and returned from money either the English public must be back to war with Catholic France. Dumpy professed hostility to France, but a great to abide by Charles instance. The commons believe that downbeat was the real instigator of Charles's agreement. Charles dissolved the Cavalier parliament and January 1679 to save downbeat. The Parliament which met the following March was antipathy static to Charles. They feared he would use the army to impose Catholicism and suppress dissent. Charles was forced to just found this trips. Resigned as Lord High treasurer with a pardon from the king, the House of Commons to care at the pardon invalid though, and claimed that the dissolution of parliament did not hold the impeachment proceedings against non-basic. The House of Lords wanted to exile downbeat, but the Coleman's wanted a harsher sentence and there was an impasse between the two houses. Charles said downbeat reluctantly to the Tower of London where he remained for five years. Something that Charles the second is remembered for his keen interest and science trials as childhood, she just thought scientific study and inappropriate education for future king. A king should be studying things like classics and languages, of course, in those days, later, the surgeon William Harvey was appointed a Charles's cheater. He was physician to Charles the first became famous for his study on circulation in the human body. Harvey had been mid responsible for Charles and jams at the Battle of ADG Hill, although they replaced by their father's side once the battle commenced, where they could be saying he was someone who was trusted by Charles, the first one and his household and exile, Charles studied physics, chemistry, and the mathematics of navigation. Charles became good at the latter and wasn't possible chemist either. His scientific studies may have been recreational rather than something very serious. After his coronation, he installed a sundial on a telescope and the Privy garden, which was the cutting edge of science for his day. A group of scientists who have become famous began to mate Walton College at Oxford and the 1860s included Christopher RAN, who was an architect, mathematician, anatomists and geometries. Most famous of course for having designed some Paul's Cathedral, other very prominent buildings. Robert Hooke, a polymath. He was a first-person to be a microorganism through a microscope on Robert Boyle, widely regarded as the first modern chemist. He was also a philosopher, physicist and inventor. Their work safe during the Civil War, but after the restoration, Charles gave them royal patronage on the Royal Society came into being the Royal Society of London from proving natural knowledge, the UK's National Academy of Sciences, Charles find the mathematical skill at Christ Hospital in 1673. And he find that the Royal Observatory in Greenwich are really great place to visit in 1675 to compete with French progress and astronomy, charles actually had his own private laboratory to carry on his interest in chemistry. Dissections were carried out there which the king witnessed. And that was something that was considered while cutting edge science but also morally objectionable to some and his day. When Charles developed guides and couldn't quite walking, he spent time in his laboratory carrying out experiments for us at the time. Unfortunately, he became fascinated with trying to distill mercury. I'm breathing in mercury. Fumes may have contributed to his later ill-health and possibly his death. Now let's talk about the later Ran of Charles. The second, James has positioned as Charles's air was very contentious. Anthony Ashley Cooper, the first journal shaft spray, who was a bedroom of the cabal, stridently opposed a Catholic heir apparent. The highest of Commons introduced the exclusion bill in 1679 and an attempt to block James from the succession. Some sought to have the crime past the child's is a legitimate son, the Duke of Monmouth, the horrors who abhorred the exclusion bot became known as Tories. And that word Tory comes from a word used for dispossessed Irish Catholic bundles. The petitioners who supported the Bobo called wigs. And that term wig comes from a term used for rebellious Scottish Presbyterians. It's nice to see the Caltech element and the English Parliament. Charles dissolved parliament and med 1679 after quantiles and plots trials suggested to him that the public was becoming more tolerant of Catholicism. Charles did not say the more moderate parliament that he had hoped for them and dissolve Parliament again. New parliament met in Oxford and March 1681, I'm Charles dissolved it after only a few days. During the 1800s, popular support for the exclusion build wind, and Charles enjoyed popularity with the public. Lord Shaftesbury was unsuccessfully tried for treason and 1681 and flat to the Netherlands where he died. Charles rude with ICT parliament for the rest of his reign. Protestant conspirators who were angered by Charles is opposition to the exclusion. Bell developed the ri, highest plot, and that was a plan to assassinate Charles and James as they returned to London from the horse races and new market. Now it so happened that Charles is lodgings, new market caught fire and were destroyed. And so he was forced to return home early and avoided the plot. News of the failed plot liked with prominent protestant politicians, such as the Ireland ASX, Algernon Sydney, Lord Russell, and the Jacob Monmouth. Charles is a legitimate son, becoming associated with the plot. Sx cut his own throat and the Tower of London. Sydney and Russell were executed for high treason on spurious evidence. The Duke of Monmouth was exiled to the court of William of Orange. Lord DOM bay on the surviving Catholic Lords held that the tar were released and the king's Catholic brother James, acquired greater influence at court. Titus Oats was jailed for defamation. Trials had grown harsher towards his adversaries in his later years on the Whigs compare them to the autocratic Louis the 14th of fronts, describing service to the king as slavery. Many of them were prosecuted under a state saved with Charles replacing judges and sheriffs at, well, I'm packing juries to achieve conviction according to Wikipedia. Trials, disenfranchised Whigs and the 1880s municipal elections to wipe out opposition that in London, charles misuse of the judicial system to wipe out political opposition, which was also something that was used by his brother James the seventh second, and eventually lead to separation of powers. So the legislature, parliament on the judicial system became two separate entities eventually. Now let's talk a little bit about the death of the merry monarch of a second of February 1685 in the morning, Charles had an apoplectic fit, which as an old-fashioned term meaning that one of his Oregon's ruptured or possibly that he had a stroke. After unpleasant treatments including bloodletting and purging. He died on the sixth of February, 1685 at 1145 AM at the Palace of white hole. At the time, many believed he had been poisoned tree to the suddenness of the staff, but modern physicians believe he may have had uremia, which is a form of kidney dysfunction because of course, he had been experimenting with mercury and that might have led to that condition. His deathbed, Charles asked James to ensure the welfare of his mistresses be well to Portsmouth unless not per Nali starve. Portsmouth was Louise run a power and CoA decry, who was the Duchess of Portsmouth. And Nellie was the actress, Eleanor, known as now Gwen. He told his courtiers, I'm sorry gentlemen, for being such a time a dying. He expressed regret for the way he had treated his wife. Last night. He became a member of the Catholic Church as witnessed by Father John huddled stun, although high sincere, this walls and high consciously was as questionable. He was buried a low-key ceremony at Westminster Abbey on the 14th of February, 1685. He was succeeded by his brother, James the seventh of Scotland on second of England. 44. James VII & II : Now we're going to talk about the ran on downfall of James's seventh on second. He had been a contentious era parents and he was an even more contentious king during his red, we have what's known as the Glorious Revolution. We're going to hear a little bit about that later. And a movement was started known as the Jacobite movement after gems Jacob bang, the biblical equivalent of Jims. Jim says seventh and seconds left from the 14th of October, 1633 to the 16th of September 1701. He was king of England and Ireland as James the Second and King of Scotland as James the seventh. And he succeeded his brother Charles the second on the sixth of February, 1800s. He was deposed and the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and he was the last Catholic monarch. Here's removal confirmed the supremacy of parliament Over the monarch. And that was a struggle that had been going on since the time of Charles the first and the civil wars. James has acceleration after Charles the second was accepted as the principles of hereditary eligibility and the divine right of kings were widely accepted at the time. So those who tolerated his Catholicism didn't necessarily approve of Catholicism in general. They English and Scottish parliaments refused to pass his program. And when he tried to impose it by decree, he was opposed. Thus he was removed on political rather than religious principles, that the king was not above parliament. On the 10th of June 1688, james, his son, James Francis Edwards shirt, was born and became Prince of Wales, replacing his daughter Mary and her Protestant husband when you have orange and the line of succession. And that meant the possibility of a Catholic royal high-speed established, which caused alarm and Parliament and to members of the public. On the 30th of June, the equivalent of the seven bishops for seditious libel irrevocably damaged his authority. The kids have been seen as an attack on the church of England. We're going to find out a bit more about that later and how he came to be removed. It was followed by anti-Catholic riots in England and Scotland. And many felt that only the removal of the king would prevent a civil war. Leading establishment figures invited William of Orange to take the throne of England. He landed and Brexit on the 5th of November, 1688, James's Army deserted. James went into exile and France on the 23rd of December, Convention, Parliament proclaimed that the king had vacated the throne and installed Mary and William as co-residents. This established the principle that sovereignty came from parliament, not from birth. On the 14th of March, 1689, James arrived in Ireland, began an attempt to recover his kingdoms. There was a simultaneous Jacobite rising in Scotland to try and restore him. April, a Scottish convention concurred with the English Parliament that James had forfeited the throne. William and Mary were offered the throne of Scotland. James was defeated at the Battle of the Boyne and Ireland, July 1698. And that is still a commemorated in northern Ireland where I live by the orange order on the 12th of July every year. And he returned to France, spending the rest of his life in exile at sounds drama onto the protection of his cousin Louis the 14th. His contemporary opponents depicted him as tyrannical, but by the early 20th century, historians praised his advocacy of religious tolerance, which seemed to be a bit ahead of its time. And recent times historians have tended to take a stance between both phase views. Now let's talk about the early life of James the seventh second. He was bored at some James's Palace in London on the 14th of October, 1633. He was the second surviving child of Charles, the First on Henrietta Maria of France. He was baptized as an Anglican by William large, Archbishop of Canterbury. And he was educated by private tutors along with his brother, the future Charles the First and the two sons of George failures, Jacob Buckingham, George on Francis failures. He was mad Lord High Admiral H3, which was obviously an honor railroad, but the actually became a significant rule once he reached adulthood, he became Duke of York at birth, the title of the second son of the King of England. I was made a member of the Order of the Gardner, the highest order of chivalry. And 1640, he was formerly created Duke of York in 1644. Let's talk a little bit about his life during the civil wars. After the Battle of Edge Hill and October 1642, in which James and his brother narrowly escaped, captured by the parliamentarians. He spent four years in Oxford, which was the royalist best. He was made a Master of Arts by Oxford University on the 1st of September 1642 at the age of nine and served as kernel of a volunteer regiments. When this regiment surrendered. And 1646, James was held in London, ups and James's Palace with his younger siblings, Henry, Elizabeth, and Henrietta. When parliament could not come to terms with Charles, the First, the younger Charles was an excellent France. Parliament considered making jams King at that point, his father order Jim's to escape with the aid of soldier in spite Joseph bump failed an EPO 1648, he made it to the Hague. Charles the first was executed on the 30th of January, 1649. Covenant trust and Scotland prepared Charles the second is king, and sent troops to add his restoration. They were defeated at the Battle of Worster in 1651. Charles escaped back to France on the royalist cause. Seemed vine question at that point. Let's hear a little bit, a bite. His life and exile. Jim served and the French Army during the frond civil wars. He later served against the Spanish. One observer of James and battled remark, but he ventures himself on charge of Galilee where anything is to be done. So he got on quite well in the military and he won favor with the French general terrane and was given command of a captured Irish regiments and 1652 later mid Lieutenant General. And 1654, Charles was still attempted to secure a restoration at that point, but France had allied itself with Chrome. Well, 1656, Charles look to spin Francis animate to support his cause, and James was there for expelled from France. Unforced art of terrapins are amazing thoughts that career over. James actually argued with his brother Charles over his choice of span over France. The brothers were exiled on PR, up that point like the PR relations of their French family. Jameson, his younger brother had traveled to Bruges to fight with the Spanish army, which they joined in Flanders. And James was given command of six regiments of British soldiers. He fought against his former French comrades and the butler dune, James Buchanan, France with two Irish soldiers at that point, Richard James tall, but who were Catholic and they were quite an influence on him. He became distance from his brothers, onclick him advisers. Pedro tall, but went on to become Archbishop of Dublin. And Richard Talbot was first airlift intraconal on a politician, soldier on courtier, the French and Spanish mid pace and 1659 and James was offered an admiralty and the Spanish navy. And he's seriously considered taking it up as he started the likelihood of a restoration of the monarchy in England. But the next year the political situation had changed. He declined the post on Charles the second was restored on proclaimed king. We heard a little bit earlier about James's scandalous first marriage. James was my heir presumptive, but Charles was young and Saint likely to Father in air. On the 31st of December Sixteen, Sixteen, James was created Duke of Albany and Scotland, and that was a title comparable to being the Duke of York and England, the second sum of a monarch. When he returned to England, he calls to stir up by analytes and his engagement to unhide, daughter of Edward Hyde. He was Charles, his Chief Minister. James had used the promise of marriage to seduce, and she became pregnant. And 1660, after the restoration, princes were expected to marry politically as strategically. For a prince to marry a commoner was really scandalous at that point in history. Even the bride's father tried to persuade the couple not to marry, but they married in secret, then later had an official ceremony on the 3rd of September 1660. And London. The baby named Charles died in infancy. Asked at five more children, sadly, only two daughters of gyms and, and survived Mary, who would go on to become married the second who became queen. According to the naval administrators, Samuel Pepys. Jim showed affection for his girls, I'm played with them and the words of purpose, like an ordinary private father of a child. That was actually quite unusual for European royalty at the time. James, his wife, rather than his daughter. A door jams. I wasn't influenced behind many of his decisions, but despite this, like his brother, he had many mistresses and coding. Arabella Churchill who gave him four children. And Catherine sagely, who was noted for her wet on her sharp tongue. Pappas wrote that James did I, my wife might lay, he was known for openly flirting and Public Historian John Miller records on a kind of James as the most unguarded O'Connor of his time. Gilbert Burnett, Scottish Bishop of salts break remark that James is mistresses, must have been given to him by his priests. As a panelist, he seemed to like to go for big, difficult personalities, very sadly, died in 1671. Let's talk about Jim's as military and political rule. We've seen before that he showed up to trade for all things military. After the restoration, James was confirmed as Lord High Admiral, the title that he'd been given as a small child. And Charles the second also made him Governor of Portsmouth on Lord warden of the sink ports. His brother also met James, the governor of the royal adventurers and to Africa, little short and to the Royal African Company. And October 1660, he was forced to resign from this post after the Glorious Revolution, james combined with the Royal Navy during the second Anglo Dutch War from 1665 to 67. And he directed the flipped to capture for it's off the African coast. That would facilitate England's involvement in this live tread a tax on Fort such as these and actually caused the war in the first place. James command to the fleet during the third Anglo Dutch War as well from 1672 to 70 for much of the fighting occurred off the coast of Africa. Following the rid of Midway and 1667, jams oversaw the fortification of the scythe coast. Jams have a large income for the Lord high Admiralty post-office and wind tariffs, which had been grounded to him by Charles the second also additives and CAM. He was able to keep a sizable Court of his own, so he is quite a powerful figure. In 1664, Charles granted American territory between the Delaware and Connecticut rivers to Jim's. The British captured the former Dutch territory of New Netherland and its key port, New Amsterdam, which became the province and City of New York, in honor of James, is titled jake of York. James gave part of the colonnade to George car Tourette on John Barclay for orange, as it was then was renamed albany after James Scottish title Jacob Albany gems became governor of the Hudson Bay Company in 1683, but he didn't really play an active role. In September 1666, Charles the second appointed jamestown laid the firefighting efforts during the grid Fire of London. Adrian tennis words quotes at contemporary witness as having said, the Duke of York have won the hearts of the people with his continual an interpreter, likable plants day and night and helping to quench the fire. Let's talk about James as Catholicism and his second marriage, both very contentious. During his time in France with his Catholic relatives, James, who come into contact with the ceremonies and ideas of the Catholic Church, and he had become interested in the Catholic fifth. James began taking the Eucharist and 1668 or nine, but kept his conversion secret. He continued attending onclick and services until 1676. Socially, his associates were mostly Anglican. Parliament introduced the Test Acts and 1673, which required public and military office holders to renounce Catholic doctrines of transubstantiation, a mass which were key points of Catholicism. And then to receive the Church of England Eucharist, James relinquished his role of Lord High Admiral rather than undertake these actions. And that mid his conversion to Catholicism very public. Charles the second opposed his conversion and ordered the James's daughter's be wrist and the Anglican Church. Despite this, Charles the second sanctions the marriage of James and Mary of Medina, a 15-year-old Italian Catholic Princess. James, and married, married by proxy on the 20th of September, 1673. Mary arrived in England on the 21st of November, and Nathaniel crew, the best of an Oxford, officiate at an Anglican service, the proxy marriage ceremony, having been Catholic, james was not viewed by many as an agent of the much hair to the pepper. Say, James was very competitive sphere that was a genuine faith, not a political thing. On remarked. If occasion where I hope God would give me his grants to suffer death for the true Catholic religion, as well as banishment. That precipitated a key moment in English history. They exclusion crisis. Charles and James had a sister Mary, and she had a son, Prince William of Orange. In 1677. Charles the second orange for James's daughter Mary to marry William. Two cousins marrying each other. How terribly royal. But anyway, james was reluctant, but a grade to the marriage. James was still Charles's heir apparent, and the Protestant marriage was intended to quell fears that the Stewart family was becoming a Catholic devastate. Titus oats, whom we heard about earlier, unveiled a so-called purplish plot to put gems on the throne, which fanned the flames of anti-Catholic prejudice and outright has stereo. Anthony Ashley Cooper, the fresh sterile shaft spray proposed an exclusion, built a cut jams height of the line of succession. Some MPs wanted to cry. And James Scott, the first week of Monmouth there was Charles the second illegitimate son. Charles dissolve parliament and 1679 to stop the exclusion bell from being passed. And he dissolved to farther parliaments in 16801681 because of the bill, they exclusion crisis initiated the two-party system, which largely exists until today. Although we have more than two parties, we still have a fairly bipartisan system. And it also saw the creation of the story and wake parties, as we heard earlier. Jams had to concede to a lesser role and his brothers government. Though he remained heir apparent on Charles his orders, he left England and went to Brussels in 1680, he was appointed Lord High Commissioner of Scotland and took up residence at Hollywood palace and Edinburgh to suppress an uprising and oversee royal government. He returned to England when Charles fell ill. The hysteria around the Polish plot had favored by that, but jams had animates in Parliament, even his former ally, Lord Dante, in 1683. The ri, highest plot to assassinate Charles and James was uncovered and it created a public sympathy for both Charles and James. Several high-ranking Whigs were implicated, as was the Duke of Monmouth. Moment initially confess to participating in the plot and named co-conspirators, but he later accounted, he was forced into exile at the court of William of Orange, who was my to his cousin, was the son of his aunt. So that was a fairly good place for him debate Charles response to the plot by trading wigs and dissenters more harshly. Since James was no more popular than he had been in the past, Charles invited him to return to the Privy Council in 1684, and the threat of excluding James from the succession had passed. Charles the Second died on the sixth of February, 1685, and James succeeded to the throne. He became James the second of England and Ireland, and James the seventh of Scotland. His succession was unopposed, uneven popular with the public asset had been a smooth succession, which is a big relief to everybody when that happens at this point in history. Jams and Mary were crowned on the 23rd of April, 1685 at Westminster Abbey. The Parliament, which assembled in May 1685 was known as loyal parliament and was supportive of Jim's, who even promised to forgive former exclusion lists if they would adhere to his rule. Most of Charles's ministers remains and post other jams promoted his brothers-in-law. The arrows have clarity on and Rochester. He demoted the mark was of Halifax who had lost his friendship when he helped to pass the test Acts. James was granted a generous and come from the proceeds of tonnage in Pine Ridge and customs duties. He was a harder working King than Charles had been, but less willing to compromise when he met with disagreement from his advisers. Duke of Monmouth lab a rebellion against James soon after his accession. And he was also faced by rebellion. And Scotland led by Archibald Campbell, Lamar guile, both launch their balance from Holland, where William of Orange, James's son-in-law, pretty much nothing to deter them. Our guy wholesale to Scotland and recruited a forest from his Cloud, the Cloud Campbell. He was captured on the 18th of June, 1685 on the rebellion quashed. He was taken to add bread, but a new trial was not initiated because he had formerly been tried and sentenced to death. The king confirmed the death sentence and ordered that it was to be carried out within three days. Monmouth was more of a threat to jams and Argyle, he had once been put forward as potential king, and he had proclaimed himself can get Lyme Regis on the 11th of June, 1685. His forces attack James's and the night, but were put on at the Battle of Saj ma mama was captured on consequently executed at the Tower of London on the 15th of July. Many rebels, about 800 to 850 people were sent to deportation and indentured servitude labor would I pay basically slavery and the West Indies, the convex were valuable as a source of cheap labor and so we're alive to stay alive. These trials became known as the Bloody a sizes. Other rebels were sentenced to be burned by habit or hung, drawn and quartered, some very severe punishments, and around 250 people were executed. According to Wikipedia, of more than 500 prisoners brought before the court, a Thompson between the 17th and 18th of September, 144 were hanged on there remains displayed around the country to ensure people understood the fate of those who rebelled against the King. James became harsher towards his adversaries, are more suspicious of the Dutch as a result of these rebellions. Let's talk about two key issues of James's ran religious liberty and dispensing par, dispensing part was one of his royal prerogatives, which allowed him to dispense with acts of Parliament. James alarmed manet by enlarging his standing army, his own private army, even though it went against English norms to keep a professional army and peacetime, parliament was dismayed at James's use of dispensing par, to lie Catholics to come out regiments with ICT, taking the oath required by the test ACT. James per roped parliament and 1685, and it never met again during his reign. James also published private documents of Charleston seconds with his sign manual has kind of royal signature, which argued the case for Catholicism over Protestantism. And he challenged the Archbishop of Canterbury on the aggregate establishment to refute Charles's argument saying, let me have a solid answer. And then the gentleman like style, and it may have the effect which you so desire of bringing me over to your church. That's what quite combat of he's saying convinced me. The archbishop realized that can be account of worms on refused, citing his respect for the deceased king, James wanted to see repeal of the penal laws which limited liberties for Catholics and the centers. But his early ran, he did not grant relief to the centers. They did not petition him for it. He wrote to the Scottish Parliament when it opened in 1685, that he wanted to see penal laws against certain Presbyterians, stated that they wish they could have been there in person to promote such laws. In response, the Parliament passed an act that standard whoever should preach and to convince knuckle under a roof or should attend either as preacher or as a here're, I can vent to go in the open-air, should be punished with death and confiscation of property. Very, very harsh. In March 1686, he wrote to the Scottish Privy Council to seek tolerance for Catholics, but not for rebellion prone Presbyterian covenant. Presbyterians came to refer to this period as the killing time, the time between 1679 and the Glorious Revolution that the 1800s, it, that name came from a text called The Killing client by Robert wardrobe. Has the history of the sufferings of the Church of Scotland from the restoration to the revelation that was published in 172122, torture was used and cleaning hanging individuals by their thumbs, using the boats, which meant calls and crushing injuries to the foot or leg with instruments of torture, thumb screws. We know if a Rhonda, 100 executions recorded as a result of the Privy Council is orders. The highest offices and all of James's kingdom were housed by Catholics. He was saved the PayPal not CEO Ferdinando data at court. And it was the first papal representative at the English courts since the reign of Mary, the first James's confessor, Edward PATRIC, was particularly loved by Anglicans. The Secretary of State's the art of Sunderland replaced CT office holders with so-called purposed favorites. And James began to lose his Anglican supporters. Even the kings brothers-in-law lost their posts and Sunderland prior to May 1688, Jim sought to have English common law courts confirm that he had the parts of the spans with acts of parliament, known as we said before, as dispensing par, he dismissed judges who opposed him on this matter. The Solicitor General, Henry edge finch, 11 out of 12 judges eventually roads and James's favor. Gyms used dispensing part overturn the effects of laws which punish Catholics and Protestants dissenters. In 1687, he issued the declaration of indulgence, also known as the declaration for liberty of conscience. And in summer 1687, the third Western England to try to garner support for the move. And a speech given and Chester, he said something which actually comes across as quite modern. Suppose there should be a law man, but all black man should be imprisoned. It would be unreasonable. And we had this little reason to quarrel with other men for being of different opinions, aisles for being of different complexion. By opinions he meant religious opinions. At this time, James chins tuck in Scotland, and as well as a long tolerance of Catholicism, he extended partial relief to Presbyterians. And 1688 James ordered that the declaration be read from every Anglican popups. This further alienated the I can leadership. James still banks, supreme governor of the Church of England. Of course, the Anglican Church was an essence forced to withhold on its own privileges. Although those who benefited from the declaration, we're grateful to James. James also endeavored to reduce the monopoly of the Anglican Church on education. He allowed Catholics to hold vital posts at Christ Church in University College at Oxford University. That really disgruntled Anglicans. He tried to force model in college at Oxford to elect Anthony farmer as a president. He was a conflict, but he was also the L repeat. This was viewed as a violation of the right of fellows to elect a president of their own choosing. In 1687, jams tried to fill Parliament with his supporters so he could overturn pay the laws and his much headed test Act. He was reassured by addresses from dissenters that he had their support. He didn't need to rely on Tories and Anglicans. He purged those who opposed him from office, appointing new lord left tenants of English can't days and reorganizing the bodies that govern times on delivery companies and livery companies were actually quite powerful. In October 1687, James gave orders for the Lord left-hand us to provide three standard questions to all justices off the base. Number one, what they consent to the repeal of a task docked to the penal laws? Number two, would they assist candidates who would do so? And number three, would they accept the declaration of indulgence? And those who said no to any of these questions were dismissed unless numbered hundreds of justices. Agents known as regulators, were given parts to purge corporations. The ambition to create an electrical machine that would basically always favor the king. The regulators were mostly baptist and they recommended officials who were Baptist Quakers, Congregationalists, Catholics, and icons. On the 24th of August 1688, James called a general election. By September, he realized that William of Orange and Tanja to labs and England, wrote to the Lord left-hand us to inquire and to allegations of abuses said to have occurred during the regulations and preparations for the elections as well, thus delaying the election on trying to win support. James reissued the declaration of indulgence and 1688 an ordered Anglican clergy to read it to their congregations. Seven bishops and coding. The Archbishop of Canterbury signed a petition asking the king to reconsider his religious policies, and they were arrested and put on trial for seditious libel. On the 10th of Jane 1688, queen Mary gave birth to James Francis Edwards Jerry, a Catholic air to the English throne. When James has daughters had been his era as the African establishment confused James's policies is temporary because he was most likely be succeeded by a Protestant. But now they were quite alarmed, bizarre, but effect of rumor was circulated. The Queen Mary hadn't really given birth to this baby here being smuggled into her room and a warming palm. The applicants had entered into negotiations with William of Orange when the Queen's pregnancy was announced on the 30th of June, 1688, a group of seven Protestant nobles invited William of Orange to bring an army to England. By September Williams intention to embed was common knowledge. Jan's belief that his own army could come to the threatening wasn't particularly worried. He turned down an offer of help from Louis the 14th in France, which he feared would alienate the English, would have landed on the 5th of November, 1688. Many of James's protestant officers aren't his daughter and defected and joined Williams calls. Jams panicked and decided not to attack the invaders despite his forces greater numbers. On the 11th of December, james, through the grid seal of the realm, the symbol of the power over England, which he held into the River Thames and attempted to flee to France. He was captured and Kent and lead are released into the custody of Dutch guards. William did not want to turn jams and tear Catholic martyr. And so that tend to skip. On the 23rd of December, James's cousin Louis the 14th in France, gave him refuge and supplied him with a palace and a pension. Williams summons or convention parliament to decide on how to proceed after James is absorbent. It met on the 22nd of January 1689. Since James had thrown away the grid sale, it was declared that he had abdicated. The throne was nice vacant. James's daughter Mary, was proclaimed queen through jointly with her husband William. On the 11th of April, 1689, the Parliament of Scotland declare the Jameson forfeited the throne of Scotland as well. The Convention Parliament denied chairs for abusing his PAR, and set limitations on royal authority. The abuses that they cited included the suspension of the Test Acts, the prosecution of the seven bishops for partitioning the crime, the establishment of his own standing army on the use of cruel punishments. And Bill of Rights was subsequently enacted in 1689 to protect subjects from royal obese. It was in that bill that a law was enacted that a Catholic could not ascend the throne, or the, a monarch could not be married to a Catholic. That law actually stayed in place until 2015. Such was the kind of anti-Catholic prejudice that was in grant and English society. James was not going to give up without a fight and entered into his struggle to try to reclaim his territory's, he landed in Ireland with this view with French troops. In 1689, the Irish parliament declared the gyms were still king and passed a bill of attainder against those who had rebelled against him. James's insistence, the Irish parliament passed an act for liberty of conscience, assuring religious freedom to all Catholics and Protestants in Ireland. Sadly, that's not what transpired. William of Orange know William The third of England, notice King Billy and Northern Ireland where I'm from, much pictured in wall murals riding a white horse, lands with an Ireland under faded jams. At the Battle of the boy, on the 1st of July, 1690, James's army was easy to defeat because it was made up of inexperienced new recruits. English control over Ireland was reasserted. James Watts more flat to France and never returned to the British Isles again and Ireland. He acquired that nickname, share my son Chaka shavers means gym and I can't translate for you the next bit because it would be considered impolite and might get me into trouble. The politest translation is probably extra-marital gems. Later generations in Ireland viewed him a bit differently though. In fact, Irish historian Edmund and Kara claims that James and his successors, the Jacobites, where key Messianic figures throughout the 18th century for all classes of our society. France, James resided at the Royal Chateau of Sandra bad on Lai. His wife and a number of his supporters came with him into exile. Most of them were Catholic, but not all of them. 1692 has youngest child, Louisa Maria Theresa was born. There was an assassination attempt on William the third, 1696, which and to restore jams. But the failed plot met James, even more unpopular. Louis the 14th offered to have him elected as king of Poland, but James declined, fairing the English might then viewed as impossible that he could also be king of England. So he never gave up hope. Louis made peace with William and 1697 on stopped assisting James's calls. And James lip for the rest of his life as a patent and austerity. And though he still had hopes of a Jacobite restoration and rote instructions to his son for governing England standing, that Catholics should have the secretary of state, one commissioner of the Treasury, the Secretary of War on most army officers. James has seventh second diet of a cerebral hemorrhage on the 16th of September 1701, assigns your model lie. His heart was placed in a silver guilt Luckett and give them to the convent at Shiloh. His brand was given to the sculpts college and Paris and a lad casket. His bowels were placed into urns with one being given to the parish churches. Sounds drum out online on the other going to the English judgment college at Sonoma. The flesh from his right arm was given to the Augustinian nuns of Paris. The remainder of James's body was placed at a triple sarcophagus, two wooden coffins and one minute of lead at some admins chapel in the chart showed the English Meditech teens and the Rousseau's Jacques and Paris with a funeral oration by all reimagined out of the rocket. James, his body was not buried, but placed in the side chapel where it remained with continuous light spreading around until the time of the French Revolution. In 1734, attempts were made to have James canonized and the Archbishop of Paris or add evidence to the sand, but it didn't result in a centered for James. Jameson was rendered during the French Revolution. James is supporters became known as Jacobites, as we mentioned earlier, and supported the claim of his son, James Francis Edwards. He was recognized as King of England, Ireland, and Scotland by Louis the 14th in France as an Jim's Francaise, Edward walls, calling himself James the third on it. He led an uprising in Scotland in 1715 after the accession of the first heart over King George the First, but was defeated. His son, Jim's the seventh and seconds grandson, Charles Edward Stuart, known to history as Bonnie Prince Charlie, lead another uprising and 1745 was defeated at the disastrous Battle of kiloton. There has been no attempt to restore the height of Stewart since this to fate. Charles has claimed past his brother Henry Bennet texture, and I was dean of the College of Cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church and the last of germs, the seventh and seconds legitimate grandchildren. He died in 1807, no descendant of GM-CSF. And the second has acknowledged the Jacobite clans sense there. 45. Mary II and William III : After Jim's the seventh second was deposed, he was replaced by his eldest daughter Mary and her husband William the third William of Orange. Not, they had a very happy and successful marriage, but it definitely didn't start out that way. Let's hear their story in this video. The early life of Mary the second. Mary was born at some James's Palace, London on the 30th of April, 1662. And as we know, she was the daughter of James the seventh second on his first wife and hide and not had been a scandalous and contentious marriage. Unhide was the daughter of AdWords Ireland Clarendon, who was a chief minister to James's brother Charles the Second. And she had been a maid of honor to Mary Stewart, who was Williams mother, and also James's seventh on second sister. You can see how convoluted family relationships are. Her uncle Charles the second was on the throne when Mary was born. Henrietta Maria, who was the widow of Charles, the first Mary's grandmother, had vigorously opposed her parents marriage as she felt that Jim's had married beneath him. They weren't grit relationships within the family. Mary was her father's favorite daughter, and he felt very betrayed by her later in life. Her mother died in 1671, most probably from breast cancer. Per father had converted to Catholicism and married Mary of Medina, who was only four years old, or the Mary Wealth. In fact, Mary of Medina was 7815 when she became betrothed to James, who was at that time Duke of York. Charles the second ordered that Mary and her sister and be raised as Anglicans because their fathers conversion to Catholicism had been very, very unpopular with the public and with parliament. Now, let's contrast that a little bit with William, the thirds early life. What did him the third of orange was born at The Hague on the fourth of November 1658. So he's a byte 11.5 years older than Mary. He was the son of william second of orange. I'm Mary Stuart, Princess Royal of England, who was the sister of Mary's father James and also of Charles the second. She's marrying her chasm. Williams. Father died of smallpox a week before he was born and his mother actually gave birth to him in a room dripped and black for morning. He was a small and sickly child with a slight scoliosis of the spine, so it has backwards slightly bad. He suffered from severe asthma throughout his life. His mother died when he was nine. So like Mary, he loses his mother young. She had contracted smallpox on a visit to England after the restoration of her brother Charles the second on she actually died in England. William became notably self-reliant. It was a personality trait he developed since he had been orphaned at so young and edge. He was very well-educated on Haight also was raised a Protestant and the Dutch Protestant faith, which was Calvinist. He would've had some things in common with the Scottish Presbyterians of his row, Calvinism incorporates this idea of predestination that you don't choose God, god has chosen you. We mentioned before that William and Mary had quite a successful marriage, but it didn't start that way. If you've ever been to an uncomfortable probably wedding, you might be able to empathize with the kind of thing that's going on at William and Mary is wedding. Charles the Second how to arrange the patrol of William and Mary to switch gears and England that the Stewart family was becoming a Catholic royal highs. After Jim's dad joke of York, Mary's father publicly announced his Catholicism when he refused to adhere to the test ACT, as we heard earlier, when Mary first saw William, she burst into tears and couldn't be comforted. He was not a dream husband. Basically. He wasn't classically good looking. I think it's fair to say he was 27, so a great deal older than the steel teenage Mary. Mary sister gave him the unkind nickname of Caliban after the monster, a great mythology and the deformed figure and Shakespeare's The Tempest. James had consented to the match, but quite reluctantly. So again, there's this discomfort and the family. The wedding took place on the fourth of November, 1677. The bride cried throughout the ceremony, which probably didn't do an awful lot for the ego of the grade. And her father looked disapproving and uncomfortable. I'm Charles the second was that uncle that keeps cracking jokes to try and lighten the mood, which I imagine probably didn't work. Despite this in a special start, it turned out to be a fairly successful marriage of their William and Mary had no children, so they have no heirs to the throne. Let's hear a little bit about hi, William and Mary became KOH reagents or joint rulers of England, Ireland, and Scotland. When Queen Mary, as an Mary's stepmother, James, a second wife, gave birth to James prompts as AdWords and 1688, Mary was displaced and the line of succession in what had previously been the heir apparent fares of a Catholic succession and indeed of the Stewart family becoming a Catholic devastate. Let-7 Protestant magnets to invite William to invade England. He arrived on the 5th of November 1680. It, many of James's followers on soldiers deserted. In fact, even on joined Williams calls. Jim's read up on what happened to deposed kings historically. And he read about Richard the Second and Henry the Eighth and flat to France and a state of total panic. I Convention Parliament ruled that James had abdicated since he had thrown the grid sail into the tabs. As we heard earlier, the throne was seemed to be vacant on, so it was offered to marry. But what didn't regard to that as humiliating to real and his wife's name and being able to lesser status than his wife. Parliament therefore offered the throne jointly to marry, and William. Mary was criticized in England for lack of respect for her father, though she wasn't totally popular after this. Shannon were compared to the daughters of King Lear in the Shakespeare play, who traded their elderly father unkindly. James disowned on cursed Mary and a ladder. He viewed her as having usurped him. And Mary felt guilty about her father's plight for many years because they had had quite a good relationship during her childhood. Marry the second on William the third, promise to rule according to the law with the guidance of parliament. And so the struggle for freedom from interference by the monarch was still a key issue for Parliament. The throne was to past married children, then to add on her children than to Williams channel. William, though he's technically king, is third in the line of succession. I know it's all very confusing. James Francis Edwards had no place in the succession. It was rolled at that point, but no Catholic could've said the throne, nor could the sovereigns consort be Catholic. And that law actually stayed in place until only seven years ago, as I record this and 2015, new oath of allegiance was imposed. No monarch could keep a standing army and paste time unless parliament consented. There are still efforts to reduce the par of the monarch, especially after the row of GM-CSF. And second, Welcome was very reserved as a personality and the English didn't warm to him and he was regarded as an ignorant foreigner. His asthma was exacerbated by the Smog of London and he had a constant cough. So the court was moved outside London to Hampton Court Palace. William spent a lot of time campaigning abroad, during which time Mary rolled. James attempted to recover the crime by launching a campaign in Ireland in 1690 was to faded by William at the Battle of the bone and July. What did him campaigned against James and the Netherlands from 1691 to 1697. Let's talk a little bit about high. Well, William and mary's relationship with an went on. The answer is not very. Mary Rowe during Williams frequent absences and N6 COVID-19 and gave birth to a surviving son after a series of miscarriages and stillbirths. He was named William after William the third. And the king met him, jig of Gloucester, Adam Mary then how to following ICT, which really revolved around ons money and finances, her status and her acquaintance whom she chose to hang out with. This ray was actually worsened by the interference of odds intimate friends. Sarah Churchill had asked for the use of Richmond palace and a parliamentary alliance and what you've been married, oppose the former and challenged the latter unsuccessfully. William couldn't stand ons husband print Georgia Denmark, whom he found bearish. And he didn't bother to try and hide the fact that he didn't like him. So family relationships here are pretty much shot. He refused to allow print George to serve in the military and that really annoyed joan chart show the first week of Marlboro, who was Sarah's husband, demanded to command the English forces, which infuriates the king. He thought that an circle, we're asking for too much. 1692, William dismissed Marlboro, fairing. He might be secretly aligned to the Jacobite. Took Sarah to a high-profile social event to show her public support, and she refused to the Smiths, Sarah, from our high soap, even though her sister insisted, the royal Chamberlain was instructed to remove Sarah from the royal household and, and left and protest residing at psi on heist, the home of the jig of Somerset was pregnant again. Mary stop visiting her sister and they never spoke again. Now let's talk about a quite horrible and damaging episode during the reign of Mary and William, the Glencoe Massacre and Scotland, Scotland fractious Highland clans, which included Jacobites, presented a potential threat to William and Mary is government. The highland chiefs were ordered to take the oath of allegiance by January 1692, but one of them, Alexander McDonald's, who was chief of the McDonald's of Glencoe, left at quite lit and delayed his oath until the end of December 1691. When he arrived at Fort William to take his oath, he was informed that it had to be witnessed by a sheriff and the nearest sheriff was 40 miles away at adversary. And these were not the days where you could just jump in a car and travel 40 miles and over on our this was quite a significant journey and so he had a temporary and missed the deadline, not John Trumbull, the Secretary of State for Scotland. Hits at the cons. I was looking for a raise and to punish them. He gave orders that Glencoe be confiscated from the McDonald's. Though the certificate of McDonald's oath was sent to Edinburgh officials that were not informed the McDonald's had taken the oath. An order with the king's signature was given by Darren boat, but the McDonald's face military punishment. On the 13th of February 1690 to the tragedy happened a 100 soldiers aligned to Archibald Campbell, jig of archaeal have been quartered peacefully for about awake with the camera off. And they suddenly attacked the cobbles under the leadership of local landowner Robert Campbell of gland lion. Although many combos escaped, the clam chief, 33 men to women onto children were killed. The finger of blame was pointed at John Campbell, Earl of bridal ban on Holland, who happened to be an anime and a neighbor of the clown McDonald's, but he was not its chief instigator. He was imprisoned in 1695 for his earlier involvement with the Jacobites. The Scottish Parliament had an inquiry into the massacre in the summer of 1695 and a vote declared it to be a murder. Those held responsible included Argyle and John Campbell. Welcome to the third, was called upon to bring the perpetrators to justice, but he would not comply. He did nothing abide it. Mary the second died before William. She fell ill with smallpox and December 1694. And this was the illness that both William's parents had died off. As her condition deteriorated whenever Amanda at her bedside until she died on the 28th of December, aged only 30 to William was grief stricken and it was several months before he was even able to function. Whether it was left ruling on his own, and he faced a major conflict. And Europe, Charles, the sector span who lived with learning and physical disabilities, was nearing the end of his life. There were three claimants to his throne, Philip of old Zhou, the electoral principle area, and the Habsburg Emperor Leopold the Second, who gave his claim to his son Charles. First partition treaty was signed in 1698 by William The third of England, Louis the 14th in France and the Dutch. This two by two, the Spanish inheritance with a greater share going to the Bavarian prints. He died in 1699 on a new treaty was drawn up, which divided the round between the French and imperial climates. Charles the second of span died in November 1700, leaving his whole undivided Habsburg inheritance to his grit and nephew, fill up a balloon, Zhu and His will. War subsequently broke out between France and Austria. France dismayed. William went, James the seventh second died in 1701. Louis the 14th recognized his son as James the third, so it was not supporting William the third in any way at this point. This course, Parliament in England to vote to enter the war. Let's talk about the end of the reign of William the third. The error parent who was an son, William Duke of Gloucester, died in 1701 of fluid on the brand. Parliament ignored some stronger claims on chose the line of Sophia electrodes of Hanover to succeed William and add in 1700. She was the youngest child of James, the First daughter, Elizabeth, shaping Mary to Frederick the electric palatine, and we'd heard all about that earlier. I was not married to Ernest Augustus, electoral prints of Hanover. All the 21st, February 1702 windows horse stumbled on a mobile health. He felt badly broke his collarbone, hit Command L for the next month on March, it became apparent that he wasn't going to survive. The third died on the 7th of March 17th O2, with a lock of Mary's hair and her wedding ring next to his heart. He hadn't been popular in England and he wasn't greatly mourned. The Jacobites were said to have given a toast when he died to the little gentlemen and black velvet. 46. Queen Anne : We're going to talk in this video about the last shirt monarch Queen on. Recent discussion of Queen Anne has really centered around questions about her sexuality. You'll think of the movie, the favorite starring Olivia Coleman that was in recent years. And before that, there were periods in history where I was thought of as a kind of uninteresting monarch. Now this is just not true. In fact, she had a life steeped and tragedy and misery. Very sadly, as we are a byte to find night. She was born on the sixth of February 1665, and she lived until the 1st of August 1714. She was Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland from the 8th of March, 1702 until her death on the first May 1707, the Acts of Union met England and Scotland, one realm known as grit Britain. So she is the first monarch of Great Britain. Title became queen of Great Britain and Ireland, was born during the reign of Charles the second. Her uncle was raised an Anglican on his orders. She married Prince George of Denmark and 1633, her father succeeded to the throne and 1685, but was deposed during the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Her sister Mary and brother-in-law, William of Orange, assumed the throne. She badly fell out with them. Mary died in 1694 on William random alone until his death in 17 O2. And that's what I'm succeeded him politically favored the Tories over the Whigs, as they were more likely to be sympathetic to her Anglican MSM. And she was quite a device. Anglican. The weakest grew more powerful During the War of the Spanish succession until 1710, went on dismissed many wigs from office. Her political leanings ruined her intimate friendship with Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlboro. Person we're going to hear quite a lot of bite on this video. But that just says negative depiction of Anne and her memoirs formed the basis for perceptions of on, right until the late 20th century. Suffered from poor health for most of her life. She had seven teen pregnancies, but left no air, and she was the last year monarch. Accordingly, the Act of Settlement of 1701 excluded Catholics from the throne. So ad was succeeded by her second cousin George the first, the first sovereign other highest of Hanover. Know, Let's hear a little bit about ads early life. She was born on the sixth of February 665 at some gyms as Palace in London. She was the fourth child on the second surviving daughter of James Duke of York, later James the seventh second and unhide. And as we've heard before, that was a bit of a scandalous marriage. She was baptized as an icon on her godparents included her sister Mary and the Duchess of Monmouth, who was the wife of Charles the second is illegitimate son. And Gilbert Sheldon who was Archbishop of Canterbury. Mary were the only children among James and adds it offspring to survive and to adulthood. Had an eye condition which caused her eyes to be watery. So she was sent to France for treatments and live with her grandmother Henrietta Maria France, who was the winner of Charles the First, who have strongly disagreed with her parents marriage, as you'll remember. When her grandmother died in 1699, she went to live with her aunt Henrietta and the Duchess earlier. Her aunt died very suddenly in 1670 and returned to England. And then tragedy struck again when her mother died in 1671. Mary were then raised and Richmond and London, all the orders of Charles the Second, they were to be raised as Anglicans because their fathers conversion to Catholicism had been deeply unpopular with the public on, with parliament. They replaced in the care of Colonel Edward Liddy Francis failures. 1671 on first met Sarah Jennings, who became one of the biggest influences on her life. She would later become Sarah Churchill, the Duchess of Marlboro. Jottings marriage John Churchill, who became the fresh Duke of Marlborough. His sister was on his father's mistress, Arabella Churchill. All the relationships in this circle are very intertwined and complex. He was to become arms most important general, as in the Duke of Marlborough balls. James Duke of York married Mary and Medina, and 1673 after his conversion to Catholicism, has become public. Marriott Medina went home to lose ten children and ten years. And so Maryanne unheld their position in the line of succession. On got on well, with her stepmother on James was devoted to his daughters. No. Discussions of own's possible sexual relationships with webinar is ongoing, but we do know that she had a very successful marriage. Have actually been unable to attend her sister's wedding as she had smallpox, which just seems an entirely reasonable reason for staying away. Lady Frances failures actually died of the disease. Lady Henry aldehyde, he was arms aren't, then became her new governess. I'm Queen Mary. Her stepmother visited Mary and sister and Holland for two weeks a year after the webbing, the anti-Catholic hysteria, which followed the so-called Polish plot, forest James and his wife to Brussels where I visited them. At this point, she's still getting on quite well with her family. She joined her father and stepmother when they moved to Hollywood palace and the Edinburgh from July 1681 to my 1682. And that was actually the last time, but she left England. When her second cousin George of Hanover visited England, rumors of a potential marriage between him and on circulated. There was also gossip about her relationship with Lord Milgrim, and he was subsequently removed from the CTO, though only temporarily. Charles the second wanted to find a Protestant March for his niece because of the anti-Catholic public feeling that had followed her father's conversion. This person also needed to be acceptable to his Catholic chasm, Louis the 14th, the front. So there was a balanced based struck there. The person he chose was George prince of Denmark. Denmark was a Protestant ally of France. Louis the 14th was keen on an alliance between England and Denmark to contour the power of the Dutch. Almost patrol to the brother of King Kristian the fifth prince george of Denmark. He was on second chasm once removed. Royal relationships in Europe up point, terribly entangled. Everyone's related to their splices. James was pleased about this marriage as it lessens the par of William of Orange. And actually, William of Orange was unhappy about the March politically, but he also developed a personal dislike of Prince George, who may be considered bearish. And as we heard before, he did nothing to conceal this dislike and it cause problems within the family. And George were married on the 20th of July, 1683 and the Chapel Royal at some James's Palace. They ended up having a pretty happy marriage. They were given a residence and Whitehall, known as the cockpit, became pregnant quite quickly and give birth to a stillborn baby in May. She had two daughters and the next two years who didn't survive married and an Sophia. A big moment and arms life was when her father excited to the throne. James the seventh and seconds excavated and 1685, he gave military officers to Catholics in contravention of the spirit of the Test Acts and felt the concern that was shared by many honored her family where they only members of the royal family who attended Anglican services in England because Mary, of course, live with William and Holland at the time. Father tried to convince her to baptized her youngest daughter and the Catholic fifth, and her response was to burst into tears. Her religious views were made clear and a letter to her sister, the Church of Rome is wicked and dangerous. There are ceremonies. Most of the plan downright idolatry. James attempted to wake him that status of arms, beloved Church of England. And I'm became increasingly estranged from him. And Queen Mary's within days and early 1687, and was beset by tragedy on trauma. She had a miscarriage. Her husband contracted smallpox, and her two young daughters died of the disease. As we've heard in this video, child loss was very common at this point in history, but no less painful. Lady Rachel Russell described their parents grief. Sometimes they wept, sometimes they mourned in words. Then sat silent hand-in-hand. He's sick and bad. And she the careful list nurse to him that can be imagined. How to another stillbirth later that year. When Mary of Medina became pregnant, there was alarmed at the prospect of a Catholic royal house and wrote to her sister that she believed the pregnancy was fake, which was actually a rumor that was circulating. They will stick it nothing Viet never so wicked if it will promote their and trust their baby file play in tandem. So you can tell from this ladder that her relationship with her father on her stepmother had very much gone sar and had another miscarriage and April 1688 and went to Bath to recuperate. Half-brother James Francis Edwards Stewart was born on the tenth of June, 1688 and displaced Mary and the line of succession and pushed further down the line of succession. Usually a Royal birth was witnessed by members of the royal family. We heard earlier a high Princess Elizabeth, who would later become Elizabeth the first was someone to witness the expected birth of a child by Mary the first. But when this baby was born on was in bath for health reasons, she may have gone deliberately to avoid the birth. And it's also possible that James did not want Protestant relations there. It was an affair of state, and he actually didn't want to be involved in the affairs of state and believed the rumor that the baby boy had been smuggled into Queen Mary's room and a warming pan writing to her sister. I shall never know I be satisfied whether this child be true or false. It may be it as our brother, but God only knows. One cannot help having a thousand fears and melancholy thoughts. But whatever changes may happen, you shall ever find me firm to my religion. And fifth layers. James hot, 40 witnesses to the birth attend the Privy Council meeting, but on refused to go or to raid the depositions saying it was not necessary. So let's hear what happens during the Glorious Revolution. At the behest of Protestant magnets, William of Orange invaded England on the 5th of November, 1688. James had forbidden to visit Mary, but they wrote to each other and arm had been aware of the plans to embed, following the advice of the Churchill's, she cited with her brother-in-law over her father. On the 24th of November, the Churchill's abandoned the King, followed by Prince George. James is really even losing the support of his own family. I remember he had adored his daughters and their childhood. James ordered the Duchess to be placed under high harassed because he knew that Sarah Churchill was a prodigious influence on them and flat with her via back staircase. And they took refuge with Bishop Compton for a night before heading to Nottingham on the 1st of December, met Prince George at Oxford and triumph for the large company. Two weeks later, James romantic, God help me, even my children have for sick and me. On her return to London on the 19th of December and was visited by William James flat to France on the 23rd of December and played her usual card game on hearing of her father's flight, saying that she always played cards since she wasn't going to do anything different that evening. Mary and William were made KOH reagents by the parliaments of England and Scotland. And, and was nine next in line to the throne. Give birth to Prince William Duke of Gloucester, named after William the third, on the 24th of July, 1689, and he became the heir apparent to the British throne. We know that relationships between William and Mary and didn't stay on a good course, but it didn't start out too badly at the start of their ran. William and Mary mid John Churchill, airlift Mandelbrot, and Prince George was magic of Cumberland. I wanted the use of Richmond Palace and the parliamentary alliance. But whenever Mary refused the first request and unsuccessfully challenged the second, relations between the sisters became much less quartile. William refused to allow Prince George to serve in the military, which I'm very much resented. William and Mary feared granting on financial independence would allow her to organize her own fraction on weaken their influence on her. At this time, she, Sarah Churchill, began to refer to each other as Mrs. more light, which was the patent him for Mrs. foramen, which was a patent and for Sarah, that was to create more equality between them when they were alone together. But these two women were not equal on several levels. Was a queen and Sarah was a Duchess, but more than that and suffered from very bad health. She had undergone a series of tragedies. She was actually quite vulnerable, and Sarah was a very controlling personality. William and Mary dismissed Marlboro. And January 1692, suspecting him of involvement with the Jacobites. I'm getting public show of support for her friends by attending a social event at the palace with Sarah, who she refused to dismiss from our high school despite Mary's and systems that she do. So Mary does not like Sarah Churchill's influence on her sister. The Duchess was then removed from the royal household by the Lord Chamberlain and, and left and protest living at psi on heist, the residence of the jig of Somerset. God's punishment was to be stripped of her guard of honor. No courtier could visit her on public bodies, were instructed to ignore her in April and delivered a baby son who died within minutes. And Mary visited to school down for her friendship with Sarah, which seems very insensitive given the circumstances. And that was the last time that the sisters met on moved to bark Hey, Hi some Piccadilly in London, where she gave birth to a stillborn daughter. And March 1693 became Williams heir apparent when Mary died in 1694. Williams issue where to be lowered on the line of succession that ions, should he marry again? The Paris stage, the public reconciliation was given back her previous privileges. Move to some James's Palace on given Mary's joules, but she was excluded from government and William never appointed her as regent while he was abroad. Three months later, the Jacob Marlboro was restored to his offices. Courtiers who had avoided item Prince George my enjoyed the social hub they created whilst a sparkling ice. Jim's the seventh second plan, the on wrote to him to ask his permission to succeed. William promised to restore the Jacobite line when it became convenient. He refused her request. May have been trying to ensure her own succession by eliminating a contest in her father or her half-brother. They act as settlement. Give birth for the last time on the 25th of January 1700 to a stillborn child. Only five of her 17 children had been born alive, but four died before the age of two. Also suffered from what was labeled guide at the time, but might not have been the condition that we think of as guide. Today. She had painful limbs and she had stomach aches and headaches from around 1698. It's thought that she might have suffered from a condition known as lupus, which is an auto-immune disease which attacks the joints and sometimes the organs of the body. And at that point in history could lead to repeated miscarriages. Another possible explanation is that she had the auto-immune condition, antiphospholipid syndrome. Several other conditions may have caused her problems though. It's conditioned and impacted on her mobility. She became disabled basically in later life, and she was carried at a sedan chair or used a wheelchair on her own estates to use one horse shares to get a bite. What she drove herself at famously grit speed. Again, which due to her lack of mobility. And Sarah wrote that she grew exceedingly gross and corpulent. There was something of majesty in her look, but mixed with a glue meanness of soul. John Clarke, first barrel that clock of pedagogic road of seeing her at 1706 under a fit of the guides and an extreme pain and agony. And on this occasion, everything obiter was much in the same disorder as a byte, the meanest of her subjects, her fists, which was read and spotted, was rendered something frightful by harden be negligent dress and the foot effect that was tied up with a pool dust and some nasty bandages. I was much affected by this site on the red rash on her fists may have been a symptom of lupus. Only surviving child, William Duke of Gloucester, died aged 11 on the 30th of July 1700. She had Prince George work grief stricken. Untitled actually observed a day of mourning every year on the anniversary of his death. Under the provisions of the Bill of Rights, 1689, was no heir to the throne. Parliament still wanted to block a Catholic succession and address any possible succession crisis. And so the Act of Settlement 1701 was enacted. It decreed that should William and add both remain childless, the crime were passed to Sophia electrodes of Hanover and her S-shaped, she was the granddaughter of James segment firstly via his daughter Elizabeth, who was the sister of Charles, the first odds grandfather. There were 50 Catholics was stronger kids and that's but they were excluded. James the seventh second died in September 1701 on his widow, Mary wrote to tell R that her father had forgiven her. I'm reminded her of her promise to help add a restoration of the Jacobite line, but had already agreed to the provisions of the Act of Settlement. Now let's talk a little bit about arms ran. Welcome. The third died on the 8th of March 17th O2 and an succeeded him. She was actually popular with the public. She gave a speech to Parliament on the 11th of March and distance herself from William. As I know my heart to be entirely English. I can very sincerely assure you there is not anything you can expect her desire for me, which I should not be ready to do for the happiness and prosperity of England. She appointed her husband as Lord High Admiral, giving him control of the Navy. And she appointed model Bre as Captain General with control of the army. Marlboro was given the rank of GIC amid a night of the order of the Garter, the highest order of chivalry, The Duchess of modern era, Sarah was made agreement V2, meaning a very intimate member of the royal household, mistress of the robes meetings. She was the most senior lady of the royal household and keeper of the Privy, Paris, so she can drill it adds household finances. She's pretty powerful. In other words, animals crammed onto Georges de the 23rd of April 17th, O2. She had to be carried to Westminster Abbey and a sedan chair with a low back to accommodate her long trend. England was entering into the War of the Spanish Succession, fighting with Austria and the Dutch Republic against France on Barb and spin. That has suburb and of course being the French royal house of the time and took a keen interest in the affairs of state. I was also a patron of the theater poetry and music. She gave George Frederick handled £200 a year. She commissioned Isaac Newton or John Crocker to make high-quality metals to reward political and military achievements at the Mint. She knighted Sir Isaac Newton at Cambridge and 1705. Very important piece of legislation that happened during the time of Queen on was the Acts of Union which made England and Scotland one political realm. Ireland was subordinate to England at the time, and Wales was considered part of England at this point in history. Scotland remains an independent state with its own legislature. The Act of Settlement 1701 had applied to England and Ireland, but not to Scotland, where a dedicated minority wish to preserve the right of the Stewart family to the throne, the Stuart's having being a Scottish density of course, when Margaret shooter, daughter of Henry the seventh, married James the fourth of Scotland, her first speech to Parliament in England and stated it was very necessary to unite England and Scotland as one realm. And you can see here to the right heart the flags of England and Scotland, where our combined around this time to create the Union flag, which is still the flag of the United Kingdom today. Onco Scott's commissioned fail to reach an agreement in February 1703. The active security passed by the Scottish parliament was passed in response to the Act of Settlement, giving Scotland the right to choose its next monarch from among the Protestant descendants of the Stuart's, the royal house of Scotland, should die childless. This could not be the same person as the ruler of England unless they permitted Scottish freedom of trade. Withheld royal assent to the first, but was forced to grounds that with Scotland refused to provide supplies for England's wars. Parliament in England retaliated by passing the Alien Act 1705, threatening to make Scott's aliens and England and oppose economic sanctions unless Scotland repeat the act of security or united with England. The Scottish States chose the latter option. And the English Parliament are great to repeal the Alien Act, an appointed new commissioners and 1706 to negotiate a union. The articles of Union were sent to her on the 23rd of July, 1706. They were ratified by parliament and Scotland on the 16th of January, 1707, and an England on the sixth of March. The New Kingdom, which had one Parliament in London, was to be named grit Breton. There was a thanksgiving service at some Paul's Cathedral attended by the Queen. The Scots are John Clark comments at that nobody on this occasion appeared more sincerely divided on thankful than the queen herself. At this point we see the rise of bipartisan or two-party politics. Still today we mostly have a two-party political system. Other there are more than two parties and the president parliament, but that is the system, but, but lasted for many centuries, you will save up the par of parliament as rising. I'm not at the monarch diminishing the two parties where the tourists who supported the aggrecan church on the landed gentry and the Whigs who supported commerce on Protestants, dissenters unfavorite the Tories naturally. And our first ministry, we would call that today a cabinet. Ministers who run the country was mostly touring. It included her favorite, the Duke of Marlborough. He was considered a moderate tour on support at the occasional conformity belt of 17 O2, which end to close loopholes and the Test Acts and exclude Protestant dissenters from public office. It was supported by the Tories and opposed by the Whigs. Unforced Prince George to vote for the bill in the House of Lords rather than the highest of comments that might, even though he was a Lutheran and as such he was an occasional conformance and South, what that meant was that under the previous legislation, you could hold public office if you occasionally took Anglican Communion, hence occasional conformist. The Whigs blocked the bill for the course of thought parliament. When an extra tropical cyclone, known as the grid storm hit and 1703 proclaimed the public fast to pardon the crying sends if this nation which had drawn down this side judgment, the occasional conformity boat was ran standard after the storm, but this time on withheld support ferrying, it was too politically contentious. There was a failed attempt to reintroduce the proposed legislation as part of a money though. And November 1700 for the Duke of Marlborough, one or resigning victory at the Battle of bladder. And 1704 on the Whigs who had supported the War of the Spanish Succession became more powerful. Many Tories who had opposed the war were removed from office. The Duchess of moral repeatedly knocked the queen to appoint more wigs and diminished Tory par, even though her husband was a moderate Dory, she acquitted the Tories with the Jacobites. The queen and consequently became irritated with the Dutch chess. On also became irritated with sending a dolphin, the first airlift get dolphin, who was her lord high treasurer. Along with the moral braze, he forced her to accept the Marlboro son-in-law, Lord Sunderland, and Secretary of State for the Southern department. Even though he was what was known as a gentle wig, part of a wig click which direct to the party. And often the government turned for advice to political Abigail Hill, who was a woman of the Bab chamber. In other words, at a tangent, a servant of the Queen who was replacing Sarah Churchill as her favorite very quickly. She also sought private advice from the speaker Robert Harley. Abigail was related to Harley am to the Duchess of Marlboro, but it was politically aligned with Harley and acted as an intermediary between him and the queen. I'll be at the February 170 at the Barbara's issued an ultimatum that the queen must dismiss hardly or do with item that was a very high-risk strategy. When she seemed to hesitate, Marlboro, ANCA dolphin refused to attend a cabinet meeting, hardly attempted to officiate in their absence, but several of his colleagues and ministry refused to participate with Art. Barbara ANCA Dalton was forced to this Smith's Harley. A month later and half-brother James Francis Edwards chert, headed to Scotland with a French invasion force and tending to proclaim himself as king. Held royal assent from the Scottish militia, both 170 at, in case the forces that RISD sided with the Jacobites. She was the last UK sovereign to veto a bill. Other little comment at the time, ships commanded by Sir George Banks saw off the invention flight before it could land. The scare caused by the antenna, the invasion increase support for the Whigs and support for the Tories declined. The Whigs won the 17 OF general election. There was also drama within ads household. Abigail who was moved into rooms which have belonged to the touches of Marlboro, who had rarely made use of them, but was still enraged. She came to court in July 17 TO it, bringing a rivaled poem by a wig propagandists, presumably Arthur van wearing, that implied a lesbian relationship between abigail. The claim she wrote to her reputation was under threat since she had developed a great passion for such a woman, strange and unaccountable. I never thought her education was such as to make her fit company for a grid queen. Many people have liked her humor of their chamber beds, and I've been very kind to them, but it's very uncommon to hold a private correspondence with them, put them up on the foot of a friend. Some ledger biographers are viewed as having hard lesbian relationships, but that's not the consensus among historians as she had 17 pregnancies almost devoted to her husband. She also helped strong religious beliefs. So I'll let you make up your own minds and that she could of course have been bisexual. Thanksgiving service for the victory at the Battle of Lewes, not fought during the Spanish war of succession, did not wear the jewelry which Sarah had chosen for her. They quarreled outside the door. If suppose cathedral, a very public venue. And Sarah broke with protocol and an unacceptable way by telling the queen to be quiet. Sarah peevish, we said the queen a completely unrelated letter from the Jacob Barbara with a note containing their arguments as she sought to receive the reply. After the commands you gave me on the Thanksgiving Day of not answering you, I should not have troubled tree with these lines, but to return the Jacob Ali was letters safe and to your hands, have a same reason. Do not say anything to that nor to yours, which enclosed it. The death of Prince George of Denmark, devastated on, Prince George died in November 1708 and on walls distraught, the laws created a pivotal moment in her relationship with the Duchess of Marlborough. The Duchess arrived at Kensington Palace shortly before the prints died, and after his death, pushed onto leave for some James's Palace against her wishes. Unbelief the Duchess was overstepping the bonds, especially when she removed a portrait of the prints from the queen's bed chamber. And the belief that she was helping them to avoid seeing of papers or anything that belonged, one that the one loved when they were just dad. Sarah continue to tour, met the queen over her friendship with abigail hill on rope to the jig to convince her to leave off teasing and tormenting me and behave herself with a decent CC art, both to her friends and quaint. Really, Sarah as pushing on around a bit too much. She saw Sarah for the last time, a Maundy Thursday, the day before Good Friday, on the 6th of April, 1710. Sarah Zakat, the queen was very formal, repeating the phrases, whatever you have to say, you may put in writing ad, you sad your desired no answer, and I shall give you none. There were political ramifications from the parenthesis death. The Whigs capitalized on it. He had led the Admiralty along with moral rules brother George Churchill, and they were accused of mismanagement of the Navy. I almost forced to accept the gingiva weg leaders, Lord summers on Lord warden, and to the cabinet, and insisted on carrying out the duties of Lord High Admiral herself. This was perhaps because she couldn't face appointing someone to take her husband's place. The gen, TO demand that the appointment of the art of offered a vocal critic of Prince George appointed the moderate Arlo Pembroke instead on the 29th of November 17th. He resigned after less than a year out. Eventually, he was forced to appoint or referred to in November 1709. Let's talk about the War of the Spanish succession. And high at impacted England. The war was expensive and became unpopular. Asked at the weg Administration, which had supported it. The public was also unhappy about the impeachment of a hand raise a Chevrolet. A Tory Anglican clergyman who had preached an inflammatory AMT weg sermon. Chateau had questioned the glorious revelation for which Faltys should be published, but only leniently and the interests of public order. Riots broke out in London and supportive so Chevrolet, but the only force available to quench them was arms personal guard, and the Secretary of State Sunderland, did not want to leave her unprotected, declared that God would protect our unordered Sunderland to redeploy her guard. Such Avro was convicted, but his punishment was nominal. He was not allowed to preach for three years. Became more and more to stand full of her ministry and dismissed Sunderland and June 1710, the Ginko Whigs were removed from office. Mandelbrot retained, commanded the army, created a new ministry, had to buy Harley, which began to seek peace with France. This ministry deviated from former Whig policy by big, willing to concede span to fill up the volume of the franchise of bourbon and return for commercial concessions. Hardly want a large tori majority of the election which followed the creation of a new ministry. And January 1711, Sarah was forced to give up her court officers at Abigail tick over S keeper of the Privy parse in March hardly was stopped by a French refugee. The marketing to the scar, I believe he would die but slowly recovered anesthetic cry that the possibility he might die. Good dolphin died in September 1712 and was badly affected by his death, living her strength from him on the moral births. The algebra of Archduke Charles, who had inherited his father's claims with the Spanish throne, died, almost succeeded by Emperor Joseph the first and Austria a hungry on the Holy Roman Empire. And it was not in Britain's interests to see him claim span. The belt of secure pasted not appeal to wags as it did not adequately curtail the bourbons. But the tori majority supported it in the House of Commons to get it through the House of Lords on reluctantly created 12 new pairs and unprecedented number of new pages. Abigail is husband Samuel omasum was made a barren, I'm told Harley that she never had any designs. Make a grid Lady of Abigail and should lose our useful servant. On the same day, Marlboro was dismissed as commander of the Army. The peace treaty was finally ratified and Britain withdrew from the War of the Spanish succession. On signing the treaty of attract Louis the 14th, the front to acknowledge the covariance, success and Britain on his support of the Jacobites in the past and the Stuart's have to come to an end. There were rumors that on, on her Minister's favorite, the claim of her half-brother over the hot averse antibiotic. This both publicly and privately. But she refused to allow the heart averse to move to or even visit Britain. Harley on the tori Secretary of State, Lord Bolingbroke, weren't separate secret discussions with James Francis Edwards stirred up by the potential Stuart Restoration. These lasted until early 1714. Let's hear about the end of ads ran and was unable to walk from January until July 1713, she became feverish and lost consciousness. And December it was believed she would die, but she recovered. She became elegant and March. She lost fifth and Harley and Tova cabinets that he neglected all business, that he was selling them to be understood that when he did expand himself, she could not depend upon the truth of what he said, that he never came to her at the time she appointed, that he often came drunk and last to cry at all. He behaved himself reports or with l manner in decency and disrespect. She dismissed him as Lord treasurer during parliaments summer recess on the 27th of July, 1714. Her health was failing, but she attended too late night meetings which fail to appoint a successor. She was too unwell to attempt the third meeting. She had a stroke on the 30th of July, 1714, almost left unable to speak. This was the anniversary of her son's death on the annual Day of Mourning and her household. She gave the treasurer staff of office to Charles told, but the frustration of shrews break. She died at a rod 730 AM on the first of August 1714. Her Dr. John are both nuts to whom Alexander Pope wrote the episodes are both not wrote to the famous author Jonathan Swift who wrote Gulliver's Travels. I believe sleep was never more welcome to a where a traveler than death walls to her. She was buried with her husband and children up the Henry the seventh Lady Chapel in Westminster Abbey on the 24th of August, 1714. She was exceeded by George the sound of severe electrons of Hanover, who had died two months earlier. 47. 46 Bonnie Prince Charlie : In this video, we're going to learn about Charles Edward Stewart, known as Bonnie Prince Charlie. Bonnie Prince Charlie has historically been a very romanticized figure, a bit of a folk hero, with several songs written about him in the series Outlander, he comes across as a complete and utter fool. So what was the truth of Bonnie Prince Charlie? Who was he? What was he like? And what did he achieve? Well, we're going to try and find out. We're going to start out by listening to the Sky Boat song, which is a folk song about Bonnie, Prince Charlie. And the Battle of Kloten, the most famous battle of his life. To try and work out whether the legend around him was true speed, Bonnie bull like a bird on the wing. Onward the sales cry. Carry the lad that's born to the king. **, over the sea to sky many foot on that day. Well the claim could yield. We came the night, silent, dead feet, speed. Bonnie bolt like a bird on the wing. Onward the sails cry, carry Lad that's born to be king over the sea to sky. Burn our home. Exile, dead, scatter the then yet the salt cool in the sheet. Charlie will come again. Speed, bonny boat like a bird on the wing ing on the sales cry. Carry the lad that's born to be king over the sea to sky. Over the sea to sky. Charles Edward Louis John Casimir, Sylvester Severino, Maria Stewart. That's quite a mouthful. Was born on 20 December 17, 29, and he lived until 30 January 17, 88. He was the eldest son of James Francis Edward Stewart, who was the son of James Seventh of Scotland and second of England who had been deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 16 88. He had been king and he had been accused of overstepping the mark with how he used what were called dispensing powers. In other words, he dispensed with acts of parliament, and so it was considered to be autocratic. And another problem that people had with him was that he was Catholic, And many members of the public and members of parliament at that period in history did not want to see a Catholic on the throne. Bonnie Prince Charlie, as he later became known, and that's much easier to say than his film name aimed to restore the thrones of Great Britain and Ireland and become Charles Third. During his lifetime, he was referred to as the Young Pretender, with his father being the Old Pretender. And he was also known as the Young Chevalier, The Cavaliers or Knights, of course, being the Royalist side in the English civil Wars. He's remembered for his 17 45 Jacobite Uprising, known as the 45 Rebellion. And his crushing defeat at the Battle of Lowden in April 17, 46. And this defeat put an end to the Stuart cause. Neither are survivors of the House of Stuart today who, if they wanted to, could aim to depose Elizabeth second. Although that's pretty unlikely to happen, his escape from Scotland after the uprising has led to a romanticized portrayal of him, for example, in the Sky Boat Song, which we just heard. Let's hear about the early life of Charles Edward Stewart. He was born in Rome at the Palazzo Mute, which was his family residence in Rome. On 20 December 17, 20, His father, James Francis Edward Stewart, had been given a residence by Pope Clement the 11th, and his father was referred to as the Old Pretender, as we heard earlier. So, he was raised in this environment of believing that his family really had a right to the throne, that they had been cheated, and there was obviously an aim to restore their line to the throne of Great Britain. His mother was Maria Clementina Subieska, the granddaughter of John Third Subieski who had defeated the Ottoman Turks at the battle of Vienna in 16 83. So he's got a royal pedigree on all sides. He spent most of his childhood in Rome and Bologna, and he was raised a Catholic. And remember, there was a law in England at the time saying no Catholic could ascend the throne, and actually a Catholic couldn't marry the sovereign either, And that law wasn't repealed until 2015. His family were close, but they were quite prone to arguments. The family took pride in their heritage and they believed in the divine right of kings. So Charles believes that he's been born to ascend the throne. Charles Governor was James Murray who was Earl of Dunbar, and he had several tutors in addition to Dunbar and became conversant in English, French, and Italian. Charles had his first experience of war in 17 34, his cousin, the Duke of Liria, joined the struggle of Don Carlos for the throne of Naples and took Charles on his expedition. The 12 year old was made general of artillery by Don Carlos and observed the French and Spanish siege of Geta. In 17, 44, the French returned their support of the Jacobites. Charles Edward traveled to France to assume command of an invasion force. The invasion of England never took place, as the invasion fleet were scattered in a storm, and the British fleet moved to guard the channel. Charles's father and the Pope had introduced him to Italian society. He was quite popular in Italy and other places on the continent and expected that he would find that popularity in Britain. In 17 37, James sent his son on a grand tour of Italian cities aimed at completing his education. And that was quite common for young aristocrats of his generation. As I mentioned, his family was held in high regard in Catholic Italy. And he was treated with respect. On this tour, James had banked on foreign aid to help him recover the throne, but Charles realized that rebellion with no foreign aid might ultimately be necessary. So let's talk about the legendary uprising of 17 45. Charles was named Prince Regent by his father in December 17, 43, with the authority to act in his father's name. So, he is now the one whose job it is to claim the throne back. He had encountered many Jacobite supporters in Rome and Paris, and knew that there were Jacobites present in every European court. So he believed there was a lot of support for his cause. He corresponded and made plans to further his family's cause, and in mid 17, 45, he led a rebellion supported by the French to place his father on the throne of Great Britain in Ireland. And he raised funds to fit out warships. He landed with seven companions at risk in the outer Hebrides On 23 July 17, 45. The clan leaders there did not receive him warmly and he headed to Loch Nan Uv. The promised French fleet was badly damaged in stormy weather, and so he needed to raise an army in Scotland. And many Highland clans still supported the Jacobites, and these included both Catholics and Protestants, because the Stuarts had been the royal family of Scotland before Henry seventh daughter Margaret, the sister of Henry the eighth, married James Fourth of Scotland, and then after the death of Elizabeth, James sixth of Scotland became James of England and united the realms, although not in one United Kingdom. At that point, they were still two distinct countries with their own parliaments. By the time that Bonnie Prince Charlie launched his uprising, they were one country. Because the acts of union had been passed during the reign of Queen Anne, many of the clown chiefs tried to discourage Bonnie Prince Charlie. He gained the support of Donald Cameron of Lokell, which gave him enough resources to start a rebellion. On 19 August, he raised his father's standards at Glen Fine, thus declaring war and marched towards Edinburgh. The British commander, General Sir John Cope, marched to invernest and left the south country undefended. Edinburgh surrendered quickly. Sir John Cope brought his forces by sea to Dunbar. Charles defeated the British army at the Battle of Prestopans on 21 September 17, 45. The folks on Johnny Cope records this battle, and at this point, things were looking good for the Stuart cause. In November, Charles marched south with 6,000 troops. He took Carlisle and got as far as Sworkstonbridge and Derbyshire. Little support materialized from the English or the French, though, and the British were amassing large forces. So, Charles's counsel returned to Scotland, much to his dismay. He didn't agree with that move. The Jacobites marched north and won the Battle of Falkirk Muir before resting at Invernest. The youngest son of the then King George Second. Prince William Duke of Cumberland pursued them and engaged them at the Battle of Culloden on 16 April 17, 46, General Lord George Murray had tried to warn Charles not to fight on flat open and marshy ground, which gave the advantage to the enemy who had superior firepower. Charles basically completely ignored him. He was determined to fight this battle. He wanted his family back on the throne of Great Britain. He commanded his army from behind the lines and he couldn't properly see what was happening. He hoped that Cumberland would attack first, and so positioned his men where they would be exposed to the British Royal artillery. He realized that was a mistake and ordered an attack, but the messenger he sent was killed before the message could be delivered, and there was a bloodbath. The Jacobite advance was disorganized and the men charged into musket fire and cannon fire. It had no hope of success. In fact, it lasted about an hour. 1500-2 thousand Jacobite soldiers were killed and 300 government troops, the Jacobites actually broke through the lines of the Redcoats in one area, but a second line of royal soldiers shot them down and the survivors fled. Cumberland was nicknamed the butcher by the Highlanders, as atrocities were committed in his search for surviving Jacobite soldiers, who, when they were found, were treated very harshly, as were their families. Murray led a band of Jacobites to Ruffin and planned to continue fighting. Charles believed he had been betrayed and abandoned the cause. Stuarts never tried to start a rebellion. After that, James the Chevalier de Johnson, who was an aide de camp of both Murray and Charles, recorded events in his memoir of the rebellion, 17, 45 to 17 46, and that's a key historical source for the rebellion. And for the Battle of Kiloton. Charles's flight from Scotland is commemorated in the sky boat song which we heard, which was written by Sir Harold Edwin Bolton around a century after it happened. It was not written to be the theme tune to Outlander, just for that, another song, Gillmara, My Gallant Darling, by Sean Cherrick Mcdonell was also written about the Battle of Coulton and that is an Irish foco. Charles stayed just ahead of the government forces in his famous escape heading to the Scottish Moors. He was aided by many highlanders and nobody turned him in. Even though there was a massive reward. I'll offer 30,000 pounds, which I can't find a modern equivalent to that, but it was a lot of money. The pilot, Donald Mcleod of Gltragill, helped him and Captain Con O'neal took him to the island of Ben Becula. Then the famous Flora Mcdonald disguised him as her maid and gave him the name Betty Burke To save him and to get him by boat to the isle of Sky. He then caught the French frigate Lux, which ironically means lucky or happy, and sailed to France in September 17, 46. He actually stayed on the continent for the rest of his life. Apart from one clandestine trip to London, Louis the 15th of France welcomed him warmly and he was a popular hero in Paris. His brother Henry became a Cardinal, thus renouncing his claim to the throne. And Charles was infuriated by this and cut off his father, who had supported his brother's decision. He never saw his father again. Bonnie Prince Charlie's escape and the Battle of Lloton are the stuff of legend. But what happened to Charles after the rising? I mean, what did he do for the rest of his life? Well, let's find out. Charles had numerous affairs in France, including one with his first cousin, Marie Louise de la Tour Duverge, who was the wife of Jule, Prince of Gemone. They had a son named Charles, who lived 1748-1749 Charles Edward was expelled from France in 17, 48 under the terms of the Treaty of a la Chapelle, which ended the war of the Austrian Succession. Charles lived for years in exile with his Scottish mistress Clementina Wilkinshaw, whom he had met during the rebellion while he was in Scotland. They had a daughter called Charlotte, The female variant of Charles, of course, who was born in 17, 53. Charles had developed an alcohol abuse problem after the rebellion and was difficult to live with, and Clementina left him taking their daughter at the contrivance of James Francis Edwards, Charles father. Many Stuart supporters suspected Clementina of spying on behalf of the Hanoverian government. Whether that was a rumor or there was any truth to it, I cannot say. It seems unlikely. After his defeat at Culodon, Charles realized that a Catholic could not take the crown of Great Britain. It wasn't going to happen. He announced that he was willing to convert to Protestantism, and that's why he took that clandestine trip to London. He took Anglican communion in London in 17, 50. During the Seven Years War between Britain and France, Charles was called to a meeting with the French Foreign Minister, the Duke de Choise. He didn't make a good impression as he was combative and idealistic, completely unrealistic. So that's something that is portrayed an outlander that may actually be true. He couldn't be argued with. Chose intended to invade England with 100,000 men and wanted Charles to supply a Jacobite force. It was Charles's last chance to seize the British throne, but he was thwarted in a naval defeat at Kuibaron Bay and Legos. Charles Father died in 17 68. Pope Clement 13th had recognized James as King of England, but he didn't recognize Charles as king. On 23 January, Charles moved into his father's residence, the Palazzo Mute, where he was born. And he married Princess Louise of Stolberg Gidern in 17, 72. They moved to Florence in 17, 77, where he bought a residence known as the Palazzo de San Camente, now known as the Palazzo del Pretendente. Because Charles was a pretender, of course, he referred to himself as the Count of Albany and to his wife as the Countess of Albany. And that was a title given to the son of a King of Scotland. Louise left him in 17 80, claiming that he physically abused her, and his contemporaries very much believed her story. She was having an affair with the poet Count Vittorio Alfieri in 17 83. Charles legitimized his daughter Charlotte, to whom he'd had with a Scottish mistress. He also gave her the title of Duchess of Albany and the style Her Royal Highness. Although she had no right to a place in the succession, even if the succession was restored to the Stuarts. Charlotte lived with her father in Florence in Rome for five years, and she survived him by only two years and died at Bologna in November 17, 89. He spent the end of his life living with his daughter. Charles had a stroke and died in Rome on 30 January 17, 88, age 67. As Charles had been executed on 30 January, his great grandfather, the Cardinals announced the date of his death as being the warning of 31 January, because it was considered very bad luck that he should have died on the same date that his great grandfather had died. He was buried at Frascati Cathedral near Rome, and his brother Henry Benedict Stewart officiated at the service. When Henry died, Charles's remains were moved to the Vatican to lie with his brother and father. A monument to the royal Stewarts was later erected in the crypt of St. ⁇ Peter's Basilica where the family are now buried. His heart remained at Frascati Cathedral. 48. A Brief History of Parliament : Now we're going to talk about that very powerful institution within the UK Parliament. I should let you know just before we start that as I record this, I have COVID. If I saw it a little bit horse, you'll know why. You've probably noticed in this section on the Stuart's that there's a conflict between the monarchy and parliament. And you've probably noticed on this course that so far we've talked a lot about kings and queens on each section has been dominated by kings and queens. That's because prior to the period of history, the king or the queen was the band mover or shaker and what happened to the country. So we can't really talk a bite The History of England with ICT talking about kings and queens, you might find as the course progresses from here, that that becomes slightly less so today, of course, we have a constitutional monarchy. The Modoc is a figurehead under this parliament who makes laws. Let's have a little look at high that happened. The British Parliament is one of the oldest legislatures in the world. The Anglo-Saxons actually have cone cells known as wetlands, which was similar to a parliament. Which when you think of the word wet or wisdom, the word wet-on-wet comes from the same rate, and it was a panel of advisors who advise the kings of the various Anglo-Saxon regions. The official year given for the first part of it as 1215, the year of Magna Carta, which was signed in June 1215, you'll recall from earlier in the course hide during the reign of King John, the barons wanted to assert their rights onto diminish the power of the king. They didn't want an absolute monarch. Until the 1341 parliament was what was called unicameral immediate only had one chamber, one assembly which discussed policies. It was also unicameral during the interregnum period from 1649 to 1657, when Charles the first half being executed on there was a republic for 11 years. It's not bicameral and has been for much of England's history. That means it has two chambers. The two chambers are the House of Commons, which is the lower chamber on the House of Lords. The House of Commons is made up of MPs. Members of parliament are non ministerial and paste those who are simply there to represent their constituencies and haven't been appointed to a higher office are called Bach bed because they sit in the back bench is of course, the front benches are from Ministers. If they're to the right-hand side of the speaker. On, on the left-hand side, the front row is for shadow ministers, and those are the opposition's counterparts to the government ministers. The shadow hope Secretary, for example. The opposition is equivalent to the Home Secretary. Key officers of states such as the Foreign Secretary, the Home Secretary of the chancellor, sit and water is known as the cabinet, and that's the government leadership tape led by the prime minister. Technically, ministers can be added pays or lords. The past lords were aristocrats with inherited title is called hereditary peers. Today they are appointed and prime ministers are large, appoint a certain number of Lords during their tenure. There are still a bit regarding the composition of the House of Lords. The UK Parliament has historically been a bipartisan parliament meeting. It had two parties that started with the exclusion crisis of 1679 to 1681, which saw the creation of the tourists and the Whigs and we heard all about, but before. Today the biggest part is are the conservatives who are also known as Tories, the Labour Party, but there are a number of other parties. It's not quite just the two-party system that it was in history. We have the Liberal Democrats, the Scottish Nationalist applied Cabaret, the Green Party, the Democratic Unionist Party from Northern Ireland, the social democratic and Labor Party from Northern Ireland, the ALB apart from Scotland, and the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland, Shen Fen, do not take their seats even though they have certain representatives photo department because they do not believe that the British parliament has a right to jurisdiction. And Northern Ireland legislation makes the laws that parliament passes which affect all our lives. So what is the process evolved that legislation goes through the parliamentary system like this, and add pay presents a white paper and it may then become a bell. And you'll see a little diagram to the right expanding what happens with the boat. The House of Commons votes in the bill and if it's past, it goes to the Lord, the Lord stand debate at the boat. They can pass it rejected or they can require amendments to it, meaning it goes back to the Coleman's for further debate. Others then resubmit it to the Lord's. Once the bill is passed by Parliament to the equation for royal assent. And she apparently sides on rates thoroughly. Every piece of legislation that a center. Another key component of the political system in the UK is it's constitutional monarchy. The United Kingdom has a constitutional monarchy. If you live somewhere that has a president said you're listening to this while a certain number of people voted for that precedent. But a certain number of people didn't. So the idea of having a monarch as the Head of State is there as someone who is completely apolitical, who represents the history and culture of the country, and attempts public and international functions as well as giving an honors. But it's absolutely vital to the British system that the royal family not be associated with partisan politics, with party politics. And they're house payment control for say, recently and over the years about certain members of the royal family expressing strong opinions on what might be considered to be political subjects. Let's talk a little bit about the development of parliament. Got to be what it is today. After the signing of Magna Carta way back in 1215, barons had the right to be consulted by the king as part of his grip console. And the king couldn't levy or collect taxes except traditional fetal taxes with the consent of a royal console, which slowly developed into a parliament and also meant there was no longer an absolute monarchy. In 1292, parliament included nobles, bishops, plus two representatives from every content tied in England and Wales, good representation in 1542. The Nobel them on Bishops became the Lord's nights at the Schar and local representatives known as Burgesses back then were members of the House of Commons. It was there mostly to decide on taxation until the random Henry the fourth, from 1399 to 1413, when it was permitted par to redress grievances. English citizens could petition parliament regarding problems and they're tons unkind face. Citizens could not vote for burgess as well. Some citizens, not a very big proportion of the population could vote at this point in history, parliament slowly became more powerful over the centuries as it curves the power of the monarch. Most notably during the English Civil War from 1640 to 1649. The Lord's on the comments were formerly created a separate chambers way back in the medieval period and 1341, when kilometers and parliament met separately for the nobility and the clergy, the upper chamber became known as the House of Lords. And 1544, the Lord, just the upper chamber on the Colvin's, the lower chamber. Together they are referred to as the Houses of Parliament and they mate at the Palace of Westminster, which needs to be a royal residents. During the reign of Edward the third, from 1327 to 1377, no law could be bad or taxes levied with the consent of both houses. This was because of AdWords rule and the Hundred Years War. Basically, he was a claimant to the throne of France, but the highest of Valois and fronts didn't see it that way. The ensuing war went on for an entire century. So he had a habit of trying to bypass parliament and such a finances. So this tradition on law was set to curb the king's parts and do that. Other less powerful than the monarch of the lords and the commons was able to impeach the King's Ministers during the rid of Richard the Second from 1377 to 1399, he was the grandson of AdWords the third. He took the throat at the age of only ten and he wasn't a very effective king. So parlor but native to become more powerful, voting rights were limited to man who owed freehold property worth 48 shillings or more. So not very many people could vote. Welcome to parliament during the time of the traders as well, the powerful Tudor monarchs calls and parochial or just stopped parliament as they wished, but still needed the institution to raise taxes and the data buys their actions. For example, Henry the eighth marriage, the ambulance, was declared valid by parliament from the 1880s, the presiding officer of the commons, well, just like the referee, became known as the speaker and the speaker was often nominated by the monarch. The speaker delivered news or parlance, lack of acquiescence to the bottom, which wasn't an enviable task. And reference to this historical role, the speaker is traditionally dragged to the speaker's chair while it's selected because it was felt that this was a job that nobody really wanted. In Tudor times, the Privy Council, which advise the king, sat in parliaments and often presented bales. So basically that allow the monarch to have quite a lot of power over what web, dog and parliament. The Monarch still has the right to veto bills today, but it has not been used since 1707 by quaint on, and it would cause a serious constitutional crisis if it were applied today. Only 3% of the adult male population could vote. In cheater times, the ballot was not secret. Local backwards often support as the crowd were able to pressurize voters because everyone would know how you have voted. If you were one of the 3% of men who could vote. The Palace of Westminster as the hub of parliament. In 1548, the highest of Coleman's was given a meeting place by the Cron, by Henry the eighth. That's in Stephen's chapel and the Palace of Westminster. Henry the eighth was the last motor to use the Palace of Westminster as a royal residence. The comments that in this room until it died in 1834, the rib created something interesting in terms of what happens in the rig. Most legislatures sit in a circular chamber, but the British sizes are laid out like the choir stalls of a church. And that gives you that format of one party on one side, a one-party on the other side makes it a little bit more comfortable. Actually. An oppositional would really be the word, because that was the layer of the chapel where the Coleman's first met. Just to show you what I mean, here is the House of Commons and the UK, and here is the French National Assembly. You can see it's a very different layouts. I used the French National Assembly as an example because historically in France before the revolution, the king was sainted at the front. Those who were conservative and supportive of royal causes sought to the right time, hence right-wing. And those who were radical and supported social change sought to the left-hand, hence the terms right-wing and left-wing. That comes to the french nationalist. Sadly, you can see that the UK Parliament looks very different to that. When political parties formed and the 17th and 18th centuries, the governing party sat on the right-hand side of the speaker of the opposition on the left, as is the custom today, the speaker's chair was initially placed where the chapels alter a hub Bain. And so as members had once been the altar, they know I buy to the speaker's chair, and that remains a tradition. The Lords Spiritual, the ecclesiastical pairs were fewer after the dissolution of the bond strengths, Henry the eighth wants to corrupt the power of the church. Currently the Lords Spiritual and cleared the archbishops of counterbore in New York, the bishops of London, Derman Winchester on 21 other English dialysis and bishops. Other fifth leaders, such as the Chief Rabbi, also sit in the House of Lords. We find out this section of the course. It was during the time this cherts that Parliament gray more powerful. It was under the shirt dynasty that parliament asserted its rights. Parliament presented Charles the first with a petition of rights and 16th, 28, worried that royal power was being used to lessen that of Parliament Charles, except that the petition, but later dissolved parliament and rode with light one for 11 years. War broke out between the forces of the King, of those if Parliament ending with the execution of Charles the first 1649 prides purge and December 1648 removed all members of Parliament who did not support the parliamentary cause. The assembly that was left was known as the Rump Parliament. After the execution of the king, the House of Lords was abolished and there was a republic for 11 years. Oliver Cromwell dissolved parliament and 1653, he was the de facto military dictator. He then established the baboons part of it, which was made up of religious radicals. And this was followed by the first protect or at Parliament. It sat for two sessions and 16561658. The first session was unicameral, and the second was bicameral. Royalists were barred from parliament during crossbows tenure as the de facto military dictator, crop out the salt every parliament taken veins having anti Charles the First for doing things like that. It was parliament. They voted to restore the motorcade and 1670, putting Charles the second of the throat. Charles the second dissolve parliament and wrote with IDA for the last four years of his red, which was a very high-risk strategy from his point of view because his father had been executed for hence disputes with Parliament. It was parliamentarian marry the second successor, too hard to post father James the seventh odd seconds. And of course, she was co-resident with her husband William of Orange. This created the principle that the crowd was derived from parliament, not from birthright. James Francis Edwards church, the son of James the Sabbath and second, was debarred from the throne as he was Catholic. The Bill of Rights of 1689, which followed the Glorious Revolution of 1680. It is the basis for parliamentary rights today. Parliament was die provenance over the monarch, and this marked the beginning of the constitutional monarchy. The Acts of Union in 1707 created one parliament for both England and Scotland. This state opening of Parliament as a grand affair even to today, you can see below a picture of the Queen and all her regalia at the state of lag of parliament. During the state opening of parliament, the ceremonial commencement of a new session of parliament. And add pay a cent to Buckingham Palace as a hostage to ensure the Quaid and safe return from a potentially hostile environment. And that's a tradition that goes back to the Stuart period. During the State opening the monarch is stated all the throat and the highest of Florence at someone's members of the commons into the lords, the queen is not permitted to enter the House of Commons. Charles the First did that and it didn't end up too good for him. The gentleman Usher of the Black Rod, known as Black Rod, approaches the doors of the commons, which are slammed and his fists symbolizing the right of the commons to the bit with the presence of the monarch or her representatives. In other words, the Coleman's freedom from the Modoc. Not at the state opening of parliament. Basically, the queen gives a speech which details the government's plan for the new session of parliament. And she'll use phrases like. My government. Well, but of course we know this is all kind of upfront that the Quaid really has no par over what laws are passed except for signing the royal assent. And if she didn't do that, there would be an obsolete crisis. Voting rights have evolved a lot over the centuries in the UK. From 1421 man and only bad is two for 21 who were heads of households with land worth more than 40 shillings were allowed to vote. There are four marks of 1832 for centuries later established the right to vote to man who owned or occupied lands and tenements worth between two parts of £5 per atom, including tablets for the first time. As recently as 1832. Holders of property worth more than ten parts. We're also given the right to vote. About one in seven men were able to vote, but only if they had occupied their property for a year before the election. And lymph within seven miles of the content that they were voting for an employee to represent. The second Reform Act of 1867. Light man at the MTC owned property worth five parts of where to vote, as well as those who paid rent of £50 or more a year. The boroughs, which is the urban areas as opposed to the country areas, all male property owners and those peg a minimum of £10 a year in rent could vote. In 1869, some women who owned property and paid risks were permitted to vote, buy it. For the majority of male householders over 21, we're entitled to vote. But residents and one place for 12 months was required. About 60% of men over the age of 21 could not vote. By 1918, all men over 21 could vote, accept Lord's people in mental asylums on prisoners. And that's still true today that the prisoners, people with severe mental illnesses, others with more pronounced learning disabilities, are not permitted to vote as there are questions over whether or not there are capable of making uninformed choice. And in the case of prisoners, you've forfeited your right to vote if you've committed a crime serious enough to add up and present. That's the thinking. Webinar. Over 30 who were householders or wives of householders could vote. Householder big a voter and local government elections. That's the definition of high soldier at that point in history. There were huge changes in the role of women after the First World War. And we're going to hear about that in a later video. In 1928, after the suffragists on suffragette movements have campaigned for votes for women. The vote was extended to all women over 20 webs. So there is a difference between a suffragists on a suffragette. Basically suffragists campaign for votes for women within the law. Suffragettes believed in civil disobedience to make their points of very famous suffragette, for example, was abline pine karst, pictured blue. The industrial revolution on the first part where I had changed the rule of women. In the Victorian age, most women's roles were domestic, focused on child rearing or maybe they worked in domestic service. Nor women had jobs outside the home, which was sometimes dangerous on arduous. For example, they worked in mines and factories. As I said, we'll go to talk a little bit later about the changing role of women. And they are late 20th century suffragettes such as abline pie crusts on her daughter's Krista valid. Sylvia carried out acts of civil disobedience asked at other suffragettes. For example, they chant themselves to the railings at Buckingham Palace and dining straight. They were often arrested and they went on hunger strike and jail. You can see a photograph below of law abiding women suffragists trying to make the point that they're not breaking the law, but the kind of a placards that represented their cause. In 1969, the voting age in the UK was lowered to it tape. I hope you've found this video useful, especially if you're new to the UK or residents and the UK. We're gonna be talking about some of the issues covered in this video and later videos on the course. 49. The House of Hanover : Now become to the tenure of the highest of Hanover, which succeeded the highs of stewart. At this period of history, the monarchy is becoming more of a constitutional monarchy with the monarch as a figurehead and real decisions are made and Parliament. But this was quite an exciting period of history and there was a lot going on as we're about to find out. The Hanover monarchs of Great Britain are known as the Han of variance. And the formal name of the highest was the highest of Brunswick little bag han overlying. The highest, originated as a cadet branch of the husband's like Lindbergh and 1635. And the Duchy of Brunswick, Lederberg was located within the Holy Roman Empire. What does Northwest Germany today? Hanover became an electorate of the Holy Roman Empire and 1692 ruled by an elector. 747s, George the first became the first time invariant monarch of grit Britain. Queen Victoria was the last type of variant Monarch, Her sub Edward, the Seventh big a member of the highs of socks and Kohlberg, a gutter, which was the highest represented by his father Prince Albert. Prints aren't August of Hanover is the current head of the highest of Hanover. He was born in 1954 and his married to Princess Caroline of Monaco. Let's discover who the monarchs were of the highest of the Han River in Great Britain. The first was George the first succeeded by George the second, 62 by George the Third, succeeded by George the Fourth. Hence we have the term the Georgian era, which as a time period encompassing the rans of all these kings know George the Third was known as the MOD king because he suffered from mental health. And at 1, he really couldn't roll because of it. So his son was appointed Prince Regent during a period known as the rigid St. George. The Fourth was succeeded by William the fourth. That last a different name for a King. William the fourth was succeeded by Queen Victoria, the first mark of whom we have a photograph rather than just a portrait. So how I did the Han overs and upon the throne? Well, Sophia electrons of Hanover was the daughter of Elizabeth Stewart, creative behavior, who was the daughter of James the sixth. First. They act as settlement name tar, as heir to the British throne and line after Queen on. But she died less than two months before the death equina, which would have made her queen, the throat web to her sub George the First, he had once been 52nd in line to the throat, but he was a Protestants and Catholics were automatically written height of the line of succession. George the Third was known as the mad king, as we heard on his son, the future George the Fourth was Prince Regent during the period known as the Regency. The term Georgian era refers to the period between 17, fourteen thousand, eight hundred thirty two thirty seven during the reigns of George the first, Georgia the second George the Third on George the Fourth. George depressed George the Second, and George the Third also served as electors on jigs of Brunswick, Lederberg. They were informal electors of Hanover. When Han River became a kingdom and 1814, the British Monarch also became King of hot over there handmade what's known as a personal union, meaning that there's one ruler over these two kingdoms, but they're not one political entity. The personal union between the United Kingdom and hot over and after the death of William the fourth 1837, Queen Victoria did not become queen of Hanover. And that was because the laws of succession and how to prepare the male line to female lines. And so Queen Victoria is ANCA artist, Augustus Duke of Cumberland, it was the fifth sound of Georgia, the third inherited the throne of Hanover. The heart of her period was relatively stable. Outlets monarchs were mostly long-lived. George the Third was Britain's longest running king. The longest reigning monarch is our current Elizabeth the Second. As I record this, she's about to turn 96 years of age. The motorcade was becoming more of a constitutional monarchy. During this period, the legs dominated politics and the 18th century was the Tories became more dominant. And the early 19th century, the first ever Prime Minister, Robert Walpole, was appointed during the reign of George. The First. This period saw the introduction of income tax. Thanks for that Georgians. Towards the end of the Hanoverian Period, the grit Reform Act broadened the electorate and we heard a little bit about that earlier. Britain's territories abroad were growing during this period and by its end, the British Empire covered a third of the world. 50. George I : Hi guys. I hope you'll bear with me as I still have COVID, that might affect my voice a little bit in this video. Hopefully by the time you're watching this course, COVID will be history. We're going to talk in this video about George the first, the first Han over monarch. He was a fairly decent administrator. He worked with parliament. He went to war a little bit, but not overly much. I fairly sort of run of the mill king except he was implicated in the murder of his wife's lover, as we're about to find night. His given name was George Louis or Georg Ludvig and jargon. And he lived from the 28th of May, 1616 until the 11th of June 1727. He was King of Great Britain and Ireland from the 1st of August 17141, queen on died. He was also ruler of the Duchy, an electrode of Brunswick, Luna bark, whose capital was at Hanover from January 1698. And he was the first monarch of the highest of Hanover. He was the son of Ernest Augustus, the print selector of Hanover on Sophia of Hanover, who inherited the clamp to the English throne under the Act of Settlement 1701, George inherited the titles of lands of the Duchy of Brunswick, Luneburg from his father and his uncle's. He was ratified as prints elector of Hanover and 17 to it. Where does the elect are come from? I hear you ask well, it was because there were princess who were able to elect the new Holy Roman Emperor. And Hanover was within the Holy Roman Empire. His mother died in 1714, just two months before Queen Anne died. Had Sophia survived, she would have succeeded on. But as it was the succession past to George, there were unsuccessful attempts to depose him and replaced him with James Francis Edwards, the son of James the seventh second. The pars of the monarch, we're decreasing at this time I'm, parliament was starting to become a bit more akin to what it is today. A bicameral, bipartisan institution with government led by a cabinet under the leadership of the Prime Minister. In this video, you'll see that it is the de facto Prime Minister, Robert Walpole and others who are actually exercising par and Great Britain. The first Prime Minister, Robert Walpole, held par by the end of George, the first Surin. George died on, is actually buried in Hanover because he happened to be there on a visit at the time that he unexpectedly died. Let's hear a little bit about George's early life. He was born in Hanover on the 28th of May 1660. He was the eldest son of artists Augustus Duke of Brunswick Gutenberg and Sophia of the platinum it. And she was the daughter of Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of behavior, who had been the daughter of James the first. George as James the sixth first grit grandson. For the first year of his life, Georgia is not only his father's art, but also air to the territories of his childless uncles. He stood to inherit quite a sizable chunk of European lands. George's brother Frederick Augustus was born in 1661. On the brothers were raised together. Their mother was absent from 1664 to 1665 to recover from an illness and athletic. She corresponded frequently with their governments though, and take an active interest in their upbringing, especially when she returned. After George and Frederick Augustus, Sophia had four more sons and a daughter. Sophia is letters depict George's a conscientious child and he sat an example for his younger siblings. Georgia's oldest uncle died in 1675 with ICT children. But as to other uncles have married, so it's not certain that George would inherit their estates. George's father encouraged him to hunt and ride and to take an interest in military affairs. When he was 15, his father took him on campaign and the Franco Dutch warp. Ernest Augustus became ranting jig of Kellenberger again went another of his brothers died childless. Georgia is remaining. Uncle George William of cell married his mistress to legitimize their daughter Sophia Dorothea. Under solid law, which was the Frankish law in place in Europe, sense of light, 500 AD, only the male line could inherit. So George and his brothers seemed bind to inherit the family territories since his uncle was unlikely to have more children. 1680 to the family adopted the principle of primogeniture, meaning that George would inherit all the family territory as the oldest child with ICT sharing it with his brothers. We mentioned before there was a scandal around George's marriage. Let's hear a little bit about that. In 1682, George married his first cousin, whom you mentioned before, Sophia Dorothea, Duchess of South. The marriage security, good income. Other George's mother opposed to that first because she looked dine on Sophia's mother, Eleanor, who was from a lower-class of nobility. Because Sofia have Bain legitimised, because she'd been born out of wedlock. She eventually cameras on to the idea of the marriage though. In 1683, Sophia Dorothea gave birth to George Augustus, who would later become Prince of Wales. George the Second. Also in 1683, George and his brother Frederick Augustus fought at the Battle of the ADA and the grid Turkish war. Frederick Augustus felt light with his father and brothers after his family adopted primogeniture, and he realized he would lose ICT on inheriting territory. The breach lasted until he died in battle in 1690. Harnessed Augustus was made an electrode of the Holy Roman Empire in 1690 to Georgia is not the sole heir to his father's electrodes and his uncle's Duchy. Sophia Dorothea gave birth to a daughter also named Sophia Dorothea in 1687. The capital became a strange since George prefer to spend time with his mistress, magazine Von der Schellenberg and Sophia Dorothea had an affair with the Swedish kind of Philip crystals bone could mark fairing as scandalous elopement. George's mother and other members of the court warned Sophia Dorothea and her lover to add the affair, but to no avail. The count was killed in July 1694. I'm George was possibly composite and the murder, we honestly don't know, but it's entirely possible to believe that the current spot he was thrown into the river liner way dine with stones. One of the four of Ernest Augustus, his courtiers implicated in the murder plot, Don Nicola, mental Donna, was paid 100 times the annual salary of the highest paid minister, which does seem a little bit dodgy. George's marriage to Sophia Dorothea was dissolved, not on the grinds that either of them had been unfaithful, but on the grounds that she had a bombed and her husband, George hot her imprisoned and Alden highs, and her date of sale with the consent of his father, and she remained there until her death. 30 years later. She was not permitted to see her children or remarry and could only walk on accompanied and the courtyard. She hadn't income and servants and she could ride in a carriage if she was supervised. Magazine voted. Schellenberg acted as Georgia's post-test publicly from 1698 until his death. They have three daughters together, born in 169216931701. On you'll note the double standard hair that Sophia Dorothea has an affair and while it's to elope with her lover and ends up with him dad on cheese and present for the rest of your life. Whereas George's able to live quite openly with a mistress. Let's talk about Georgia's ran a selector of Hanover. Artist Augustus died on the 23rd of January, 1099s it, George became Jacob Brunswick Luneburg, also known as Hanover after its capital, as well as arch bound or bearer and the principal actor of the Holy Roman Empire. And as we mentioned before, the electors were members of the Electoral College which lacked at the Holy Roman Emperor. So they had quite a lot of par, his court and Han over attracted intellectuals such as composers George Frideric Handel and Augustine to Bonnie. Mathematician Gottfried Leibnitz. Queen on son Prince William GQ, Gloucester died shortly afterwards on George's mother, Sophia became next in line to the English throne. There were 50 odd Catholics who had a better claim, but they were Catholic so they couldn't inherit. James the seventh second died in 1702, who obviously have the best claim to the throne. Sofia at that point was 71, but fit and healthy on campaign to secure the succession for herself or for her son. She and her heirs needed to become naturalized English subjects for this to be possible. The same year, Georgia, surviving unfilled, died and he inherited farther gentlemen, the minions, the principality of Lederberg group and hacking centered at Cel, the War of the Spanish Succession, Stony Brook height with Hannover joining England through United Dutch provinces, add the Holy Roman Empire and other German states to oppose the succession of Philip of the French lots of bourbon to the Spanish throne. The fair bulls that the bourbons would become far too powerful if France on span, where joined together. Georgia and Veda, his neighboring state, runs successfully with little loss of life. To reward him, the British and Dutch recognized handovers, annexation of the Duchy of socks allow Lindbergh. George has invested as an imperial Field Marshal with command to the Imperial Army stationed alone the right. This was not entirely successful as he was fooled and chant diversionary tactic by the Duke of Marlborough, his ally. You remember we talked about the Duke of Marlborough before. He was Queen arms favor, of course, John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough. Emperor Joseph the first appropriate the funds for the campaign for his own use, which didn't help matters either. The German princess felt that George had done well though, and he was officially recognized this pen selector and 1708 for his service. George did not hold a grudge against Marlboro As he recognized that his planet being too low or the French away from the site of the man attack. So he understood why he had done it. George resigned as Field Marshal in 1709 on never took up active service again. He was given the honor of being a pointed arch treasurer of the Empire in 1710. The Emperor died in 1711, which threatened the balance of power. The war was ended in 1713 with the Treaty of attract. Philip was a large succeed to the Spanish throne, but was removed from the French succession. Let's talk about Georgia's succession to the throne of Great Britain and Ireland. Initially, only England had agreed that severe electrons of Hanover would be queen on successor, Scotland had not settled the succession question. N7 Fe2O3. The Scottish of states passed a bill stating that the next incumbent of the throne of Scotland could not be the same person as the sovereign of England unless they granted full freedom of Trent, the Scottish March and said England and all its colonies. Queen on at first withheld royal assent from the bill, but relented and it was passed as the act of security 1704. The English Parliament retaliated with the Alien Act 1705, which threatened to cripple the economy of Scotland by making sculpts aliens in England, if it did not accept Hanoverian r2. The trading of Union came into effect in 1707, Creating a united Kingdom of Great Britain on the Act of Settlement 17. Oh well, what's the legislation or greater part regarding the succession? The Union created the biggest free trade area in Europe at the time. Wake politicians believe parliament should decide on the succession and give the throne to a Protestant. Mandatory supported the Jacobites shirts. George declared that he would succeed by hereditary right, thus removing the wig idea that Parliament had granted him the throne. Convincing the Tories that he had not said they used up that the Sabbath of jams, the seventh second, George's mother, Sophia electrodes of Hanover, died on the 28th of May, 1714, HBT 83. George was not acquaint ions, heir presumptive. Health was failing. A British politicians were jostling for power. George updated the membership of the Regency console who's ruled was to secure the transition of par. Died on the 1st of August 1714. The list of Rachel was opened and they were sworn in on George has proclaimed King of Great Britain and Ireland. He was detained in The Hague by strong winds and did not arrive in Britain until the 18th of September. He was crying at Westminster Abbey on the 20th of October. There was rioting and 20 times across England, George spent the rest of his life in England with five visits to Hanover. A law which forbid the British monarch from leaving the country without parliaments consent was repealed in 1716. When the king was absent. Parr was held by the agency counsel on not by his son George Augustus Prince of Wales. And we're going to find out why in just a moment. Whereas rebellions and family strife, the wakes want to sweeping victory in the general election of 1715. Several Tories still sympathized with the Jacobites. I wanted to say James Francis Edwards, dirt on the throne. Some sided with the so-called 15 Jacobite rebellion led by the Scottish Lord Marr, who had beaten Secretary of State. The rebellion was a failure as Lord Mars pounds, we're PR on James arrive to lit with too little money and not enough arms jams and Lord Mark fled to France and 1716, George showed leniency and active to moderate the government's response to the rebellion. He spent the money he accrued and forfeit of the state's own skills and Scotland on paying off a proportion of the national debt, the touristic not return to power for five decades, the Whigs elongated their power by passing the SEP Taenia Act, 1715, which extended the maximum duration of a parliament to seven years. If you were in a position apart, you could hold it for much longer. Other parliament could be dissolved earlier by the monarch. George did not have a good relationship with George Augustus, Prince of Wales, and it worsens after his accession. George Augustus promoted opposition to his father's policies, especially on religious freedom and the expansion of the universe German territory is at Sweden's expense. When George Augustus had a son and 1717, the king as parole tradition appointed the Lord Chamberlain, Thomas Pelham halls frustrating of New Castle, as a Baptist most sponsor of the child, the Prince of Wales disliked New Castle. I'm verbally abused him at the christening and the jig misunderstood him as challenging him to a jewel. George Augustus was made to leave the royal residence at some James's Palace. And they've to last or high switch became a meeting place for the King's political opponents. Robert Walpole and the Princess of Wales eventually engineered a reconciliation between George and his son, The Princess and moved out with her husband, but her children were left in the care of the king and she really missed them. So it was really in her interest to get the two men talking again. The relationship between George, the first George Augustus was never warm. 1717, George helped to create the Triple Alliance and anti Spanish Lake made up of Great Britain, France, and the Dutch Republic. The Holy Roman Empire joined and 1718, and it became the Quadruple Alliance. The war of the Quadruple Alliance was based on the same issues as the War of the Spanish Succession. The balance of power in Europe fill up the 5th of span, a CNI walls that's thought to overturn the trading of attract succeed to the French throne upon the death of Louis the 15th and 1715. In 1719, span supported Jacobite and vision of Scotland, but due to storms, only 300 Spanish troops reached Scotland. Their base was destroyed by British ships. Only a thighs and Scottish Kanban joined the Jacobites. They were defeated by the British artillery at the Battle of land shale on the Klansmen flat into the highlands and the Spanish surrendered. The invasion had never been a serious threat to George anti hot the French on this side. However, again from the grid Northern War in which the Tsar of Russia on a coalition contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire. The Swedish territory is of Brahman and burden. We're seated to Hanover and 1719 with Hannover peg compensation to Sweden for the loss of lands. George's real interest was in foreign affairs. But let's hear a little bit about domestic politics at the time, the King of Han River was an absolute monarch. Government expenditure and appointments were under his personal control. But in Great Britain, George was answerable to Parliament. George's chief ministers after the 715 wig victory. Whereas to Robert Walpole. Walpole, his brother-in-law, Lord tons end, Norristown hope on Lord Sunderland. Tons had was dismissed in 1717. On Walpole resigned from the cabinet over disagreements with cabinet colleagues. Stand hope took over foreign affairs and Sunderland took charge of domestic affairs. The foreigners to the Foreign Secretary, on the home secretary, basically, Sunderland spar began to win and 1719, he introduced a peerage bill which ends and limit the size of the House of Lords by restricting the number of new pair ridges. This would have consolidated his own par, the lords by preventing the appointment of the opposition pairs. But Walpole contributed towards the fate of the bill giving what if node Hatton, the historian called the most brilliant speech of his career, Walpole and times. And we're reappointed to the cabinet and a new ostensibly Unified Web government was formed. The national debt was becoming a problem on that lead to crisis known as the South Sea Bubble. Government bonds had been issued with interest rates were high. I can not be redeemed without the consent of the bone told or H bond was at random public finances as bonds were rarely redeemed. In 1719, the side C company proposed to take over £31 million worth of debt, or three-fifths of the national debt by exchanging government securities for stock and the company. The company bribed Lord Sunderland, George's mistress medicine Wagner, Schoenberg, and Lordstown hopes cousin and Secretary of the Treasury, Charlestown hope to support. They're quite frankly DOJ plan. Bond holders were convinced to trade high-interest irredeemable bonds for low-interest tradable stocks. According to Wikipedia, company prices rose rapidly. Shares have cost of 128 ponds and the first of January 1720, but were valued at £500 when the convergence gain opened on May the second, prices peaked at one thighs and done £50 on the 24th of June. Other companies were floated, some of which were bogus. The government passed the bubble act to suppress these games. It forbid the creation of any more joint stock companies unless under royal charter, the rise in the market then halted. Uncontrolled selling began in August on stock plummeted to a £150. By the end of September, many people lost huge amounts of money on somewhere completely ruined, including aristocrats. It was basically a super credit crunch. The crisis became known as the South Sea Bubble. Georgia, Baden however, but the Ministry asked him to come back to England. George and his ministers became very unpopular after the side see bubbled. In 1721, Lordstown hope, though he was not personally responsible, collapsed and died after a stressful debate and the Lord's Sunderland resigned from public office on Walpole became the de facto Prime Minister. Although he welcomed given the title of Prime Minister, he was noticed first Lord of the Treasury. I'm Chancellor of the Exchequer. He rescheduled deaths and managed to find some compensation to manage the side see crisis. He managed to help keep George from becoming associated with the size seed companies, fraudulent actions. Although we're states in the Royal Archives showed that George himself lost money in the crash. The later years of George the first in 1725, Walpole convinced George to revive the order of the buff. Walpole was able to reward or gain political support by offering this honor, Walpole became powerful enough to appoint ministers of his own choosing as the prime minister does today, George rarely attended cabinet may tags, unlike queen on and only exercised influence over foreign policy, that was his real area of interest. With the aid of times end he orchestrated the ratification of the Treaty of Han River by Great Britain, France, and Prussia. It counterbalance the Austro Spanish treaty of IANA I protected British trade. Walpole feared being removed from office by the king, by the end of Georgia, the first three assets so happened on the 9th of June, 1727 on a trip to Hanover, the king had a stroke on the road between delta naught horn was taken by carriage to the prince bishops palace. At all snow broke. He died before dawn on the 11th of June 1727. He was buried the Chapel of lineup palace and however, but his remains were later moved to the chapel at Heron houses and gardens after the Second World War, since line of Palace had been burnt by British aerial bombings, Georgia son George Augustus succeeded him as George the Second. And what happened to Walpole? Well, while Pokemon to the large majority in parliament on the new king was forced to retain him. 51. George II : I'm going to ask those of you who are little bit older. The things that used to annoy you about your parents, do you find yourself doing those things? And to those of you who are a little bit younger, this is something that can happen. It was certainly something that happened in the life of King George the Second. He finds himself doing things that really frustrates him about his father. Only in the case of George the Second, there was a bit more tragedy involved. George Augustus or Georg August, as he was known, was the son of George the First. He left from the 30th of October 1683 to the 25th of October 1760. And he was King of Great Britain and Ireland, Jacob Brunswick, Luneburg, and print selector of the Holy Roman Empire. All the titles of his father upheld. He was brought up in Northern Germany and he's the most recent British monarch born outside of the UK. He was the son of George, the first, the first town of variant monarch of Great Britain last we heard at the start of his father's ran, he was associated with politicians who opposed his father's policies. He was a bit of a rebel child. As king, he had little control over British domestic policy, which was decided by parliament. So at this point in history, we're moving towards the constitutional monarchy that we have today. With the monarch is figurehead. He had more control in Hanover where he spent 12 summers. His son Frederick, support at the parliamentary opposition and they had a difficult relationship. Sound familiar. George the second was the last British monarchs and lead an army in battle when he fought at the Battle of dabigatran in 1743, part of the War of the Austrian Succession. He faced the last of the Jacobite rebellion slab by Charles AdWords church notice body Prince Charlie and 1745 to six. Frederick died suddenly and 1751 George was succeeded by Frederick son, his grandson, who became the famous George the Third. We've already heard a little bit about George's early life when we discussed his father, but let's recap. George was born in Hanover, the son of George Louis Prince of Brunswick, Lederberg, who later became George the First of Great Britain and Sophia Dorothea of South. His parents marriage was dissolved in 1694. On the pretext, his mother had abandoned his father. Her lover had been murdered and she was kept under high stress and south for the rest of her life. George and his sister Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, presumably never saw their mother again. George spoken French until the age of four because that was the language of diplomacy on the court. That he was taught German by one of his tutors, Johann hilar Hallstein. He also studied English, Italian Genealogy, military history, and military strategy. And he was particularly adapted all things military. After the Act of Settlement was passed in England in 1701, George became a naturalized English subject under the Sophia naturalization act in 1705. And he was also met on light of the Garter, the highest order of chivalry. He was created chicken Mark was of Cambridge, the title currently held by Prince William, Earl of Milford Haven, Viacom, North Alberta on borrowing Shakespeare Rey. George's marriage was much, much more successful than his parents. Well, it's hard to imagine a marriage ending worse than a murder on an incarceration. Basically, George's father won't attempt to marry for love given his own disastrous arranged marriage. He also wanted to George mate his proposed future wife before any negotiations were made. I suggested match with Princess had fixed, so Fe of Sweden fell through and 17 O2. In June 1705, George assumed the name. Mr. Bush, visited the ad spot court incognito to investigate Carolina adds back now that's the stuff that romantic novels or middle, isn't it? This mysterious stranger turns out to be a prince. They English envoy to however Edward polio reported the George was so one over by the good character he had of her that he would not think of anybody else. Caroline arrived in Hanover for her wedding on the second of September 1705. I was married that very evening, and the chocolate heroin housing. George's father would not let him fight in the war against France and Flanders, which he really wanted to join until you have produced an heir. Caroline gave birth to a son Frederick, and early 1707, she fell ill with smallpox thought July, and she was very old. George call. The illness was caused by her bedside where he sought devoted only. Fortunately they both recovered. George participated in the Battle of Udot hundred and seventeen hundred eight. He was finally allowed to go to war. He was in the vanguard of the amount of area an army went. His horse was killed. I suppose the kernel right beside him, George emerged physically unharmed what it did ten, psychologically, we don't really know. Barbara, who we've heard several times before, wrote that George Augustus distinguished himself extremely charging at the head off an animated by his example, the Hannah Barry and trips who played a good part and this happy victory. George and Caroline had three daughters between 17091713. They're pictured here. Amelia and Caroline. Queen arms health was deteriorating and 1714 and the Whigs felt at prudent that the Han River is her heirs should move to England. It was suggested that George could be someone to sit in the House of Lords since he was a pair of the route because I'd had refused to permit the handovers to even visit Britain. This was a way of getting them into the country. George Caroline on George's grandmothers who supported this plan, but George's father opposed it on. So George remains in Hanover. Sophia, who was Queen's heir apparent, and queen on, died within two months of each other. And 1714 on George's father excavated and Great Britain as George the First. Let's hear about Georgia's tenure as Prince of Wales. George and his father sue, from the Hague to England, on, arrived on the 27th of September 1714, landing at Greenwich. They entered London and a ceremonial procession the next day, George was created Prince of Wales. Caroline, arrive with their daughters and October while Frederick state and however, with his cheaters, London was 50 times bigger than hot over and so it was quite a new experience for George. And the CRIDE is estimated to have been made up of 1.5 million people. That must have been overwhelming. And for a young man, perhaps very exciting. George praise the English and claimed that he had no drop of blood but wasn't English. And he probably said this at a German accent, but it did when people over and he was quite popular. George the first return to Hanover for six months and 1716. And George was given the limited parts as guardian and left of the realm. He made a royal progress in Southern England. Spectators could see him dying and Hampton Court Palace. So he's very much quartering popularity and his father didn't like that. He faced an assassination attempt at the Theatre Royal Drury lane. One person was shot dead before his attacker was apprehended. On this actually boosted his public profile. It's possible his father's jealousy of Georgia's popularity. Furthermore, they're already per relationship. Georgia second son, Prince George William, was born in 1717, and they're followed a bit of a family. Instead of following costume, the king appointed the Lord Chamberlain, Thomas Pelham halls, Jacob New Castle as a baptismal sponsor. George couldn't stand the Jake, I'm insulted him up the cross-link. The joke misunderstood this as a challenge to a jail and that's something that apprentice should really not a big getting involved in. Ridged George. The first bond is George Augustus and Caroline to their apartments, the equivalent of sending them to their rooms. He let her completely through his son ICT I'm Caroline went with him, banishing him from the Royal Residence at some James's Palace. The Prince and Princess of Wales left courts, but their children are meant and the care of the King, George and Carolina miss their children very badly. They actually snuck into the palace to save the children. And Caroline centered while George couldn't stop crying. Apparently, the cake eventually alive them to visit once a week and then permitted Caroline unconditional access to the children. George William died the next February with his father out of sight. With a PR relationship with his father. George became involved and political opposition to his father. He opposed his father's policies in regards to religious freedom and Great Britain, the expansion of handovers territory is at the expense of Sweden, in particular. His new home at last or highest, became a meeting place for his father's opponents. Those included Robert Walpole on Lord Tarzan, who had left the government. And 1717, when the King visited the Hannover from May to September 1719, he appointed a regency console rather than near George as reagent. In 1720, Walpole and Caroline convinced the Father and Son to reconcile, which they did, but without much warmth. Caroline, because she really wanted to see her children again on Walpole possibly to farther has owed adds Walpole on tons and return to the ministry. The kingdom not restore custody of Georgia and Caroline's daughters to them. And George believed that Walpole had tricked him into reconciling with his father as part of a personal ploy to Reagan par, he left quietly with Caroline and avoided politics for the next few years. They went on to have three more children, William, Mary, and Luisa, who were brought up in Leicester, highest Georgia summer residents at Richmond large. They're followed the South Sea Bubble, which allowed Walpole to ascend to the highest political office in 1721. Walpole and the Whigs dominated British politics as George the first feared, the Tories did not support the act of settlement and still had Jacobite sympathies. The Tories would not actually returned to power for another five decades. George the first died on the 22nd of June 1727 on a visit to Hanover. On George the Second succeeded him as King of Great Britain. And electrode Hanover aged 43. He decided not to go to Hanover for his father's funeral, which rather than up here unfilial, the public actually thought that this was due to his English patriotism on, so it may have him even more popular. He suppressed his father's will because I am to divide the Hanoverian succession between George the seconds future grandsons rather than best all the demands both British and had a variant and a single person, British and had a very administers considered this unlawful finding that George the First didn't taught the par to personally determine the succession in this way. Critics of George the Second SMT didn't want to pay the death duties associated with the wealth. George the seconds correlation at Westminster Abbey took place on the 22nd of October 1727 on anew traditional was created. There was a new commission play by George Frideric Handel, the coronation of them and the very famous it off the priest is now traditionally played at British carnations. I got to play a little bit of it for you. I can only use recording that I could get the copyright to use. There are women's voices in this recording at the time the travel, the High Line would have been sung by boy travels rather than by adult women. One of the longest introductions and classical music giving us that really amazing moments still use the British carnations today, it was believed at the time that George would dismiss Walpole, George Aster Spencer compton to draft as far speeches, king, but he asked Walpole to draft the speech instead. So Caroline convinced George to retain Walpole. It's secured them a generous and come from the civil list. And when I say generous, it was £800 thousand, which is equivalent to 117.8 million today. Neither several list is money granted by parliament to the royal family for their expenses, but this was a really huge amount of money. Walpole also had a substantial majority in parliament, so George couldn't really get rid of him. Historians typically viewed George the second is having quite an honorary role in public life. While Walpole and his senior ministers actually governed, the king was eager for war in Europe, but his ministers were cautious. In April 1733 when Whirlpool withdrew, the unpopular XI spoke, which had drawn hated opposition. Charles supported him by dismissing opponents of the bot from office. Within the family history was repeating itself. Get Swat. George the Second did not get on with Frederick Prince of Wales. They hadn't met for 14 years since Frederick had been left in Hanover. When the family moved to England, he moved to England in 1728 and became a figurehead for political opposition, much as his father had been in the time of his grandfather. Went, George the Second visited Hanover and the summers of 172917321735. He left Caroline rather than frederick to chair the Regency console again, doesn't this sound familiar? George the Second engaged in a rivalry with his first cousin Frederick William, the first of Prussia, which lead to problems along the border with Prussia. This eventually culminated and the mobilization of tropes and the border zone and suggestions of a duel between the takings. I proposed marriage between Frederick Prince of Wales, Frederick William's daughter. Camilla, was eventually shelved after years of negotiations. The prince married princess augusta of socks Sugata. And April 1736, when George return to Hanover and 1860s it made him unpopular and England, a note pen to the gate of James's Palace, red lost our stride out of this heisst man who has left a wife and six children all the parish on the map, parish means in receipt of poverty payments, the responsibility of the public has returned journey and December, his ship was caught in a storm and there were rumors in London that he had drowned, but he arrived back in England. And January 17th, 37, The Prince of Wales circulated a rumor that the King was dying. And so George insisted on a tan to get a high profile social event, just show he was in good health. The prints asked Parliament to raise has alliance on the famously miserly king, offered a private settlement which Frederick rejected. Parliament voted against an increase, but George the Second increased his sons alliance following advice from Walpole. Farther friction between them followed when Frederick excluded the king and queen from the birth of his daughter. And remember, a Royal birth was meant to be witnessed by members of the royal family. This happened in July 1737, and Frederick bundled his wife, who was in labor and cheer coach and hotter driven off in the middle of the night, which comes up being very pleasant for George banished him and his family from the royal court, much as his own father had done to him, except that he allied frederick to retain custody of his children. George's beloved Caroline died on the 20th of November 1737. Updates are calculated and the old style Julian calendar rather than the Gregorian calendar. By the way, his response was to show what Hobbes memoirs refer to as a tenderness of which the world thought him before, utterly and capable. On her deathbed, Caroline told her solving husband to remarry, to which he replied, No, July they met class. No, I will have mistress as Annie had already had quite a few, he'd kept Carolina and formed by them, Henrietta Howard little, the Countess of suffolk, has been one of Caroline's women of the bed chamber and George's mistress from before the RAN of George the first until November 1734, she was followed by Emily von VAR model, the context of yarmulke, Who's some may have been fathered by George. Johan Ludvig was born while she was still knitr her husband though, and so George does not publicly acknowledge him. Wars and rebellions were still rife to the delight of George, on the dismay of Walpole that Britain engaged in hostilities with span and 1739, the so-called War of Jenkins Ear became part of the War of the Austrian Succession. My why was it given that name? Its name was coined by British historian Thomas Carlyle in 1858. Reference to Robert Jenkins, a captain of a British merchant ship whose air was cut off by sailors of the Spanish postcard when they boarded has shipped to search for contraband. Seven years later, Jenkins paraded before the British Parliament with light as air. The incident was used as a costless ballet. Major European dispute broke out when the Holy Roman Emperor Charles Essex died and 1740, the issue was the right of his daughter Maria Theresa, to succeed to as Austrian territory. St. George spent the summer of 17401741 and Hanover. There he was able to interface directly and European diplomatic affairs and his capacity as elector. Prince Frederick, actively campaign for the opposition. Of course he did. In the 1741 general election on Walpole was unable to secure a majority. He offered to increase the parenthesis alliance on pay off his debts, but the prints would not give n. Walpole retired and 1742, after 20 years in office, he was replaced by Spencer Compton, Lord Wilmington, him Georgia considered appointing as prime minister back in 1727. Wilmington was merely a figurehead with real power being exercised by others such as Lord Carter. It Wilmington died in 1743 and Henry Pelham took his place. The pro-war faction was loved by Cartwright, who claimed that unless Maria Theresa succeeded to the Austrian throne, the French would yield too much par. Georgia great to send 12 thighs and hacienda damage. Hired mercenaries to support Maria Theresa. With ICT consulting his British ministers, George stick them in Hanover to prevent anime French trips from marching into the electrode. The British Army have not fought a major war in Europe and over 20 years on the government had badly neglected at SAP tape. George himself at push for promotion by merit rather than the sale of commissions in the army. But with art success, George personally lab British and Hanoverian trips to victory at the Battle of depth again on the 27th of June, 1743, where they felt alongside Austrian Dutch on HESI and troops. The British public felt that Georgia and Cartwright were subjugating British interest to those of Hanover. Cartwright lost support on resigned in 1744, much to George's dismay. George alienated pelvis administrate by taking portraits advice. Refusing to appoint William Pitt the elder to the cabinet, which would have broadened the government support base. The king disliked pit because he had previously opposed government policy. Measures. Saint as pronoun a very him. Tell him on his followers resigned in February 1746. George OS Lord bath and cartilage to form a government, but they returned the sales of office less than two days later. Ethic couldn't garner enough support and parliament, Pelham return to office and George was forced to appoint pit to the ministry. The French encouraged on Edit rebellion by the Jacobites. And in July 1745, Charles Edward Stuart, also known as Bonnie Prince Charlie and the young pretender, London and Scotland, where there was most important for the Jacobites in Britain. George returned to London from Hanover at the end of August. The Jacobites to fate it the British government forces at the Battle of Preston pounds and then moves scythe and two angled. The Jacobites couldn't garner more support though. I'm promised France had failed to materialize. On the 16th of April, 1746, Charles Edward shirt met George the second son, Prince William Jacob Cumberland, on the battlefield at kiloton. This was the last pitched battle on British soil. The Jacobites were decisively defeated on horribly punished. 1500 to 2 thousand Jacobites died on 300 British troops by verse were pursued and put to death. Tons people thought edit Jack bytes were executed on their homes burned. And this aren't Cumberland, the nickname of The Butcher. And Scotland. The cause of the height of Stewart was utterly crushed. When it came to the War of the Austrian Succession, Maria Theresa was recognized as Arch Duchess of Austria and 1748. And the war handbook composed music for the royal fireworks for the resulting celebration and green park love them. I'd like to play it to you, but I can't find a recording of it where I can get the copyright. Sorry about that. The succession. During the 747s election campaign, Frederick Prince of Wales again supported the opposition, but Pellom, one, like his father had done, the Prince of Wales entertained opposition politicians outlast or high ice. Prince Frederick died suddenly on the 31st of March, 1751 is 44. His death was historically explained as being due to a burst lung abscess caused by being hit by a cricket ball, hit being a huge fan of cricket and place large wagers on his favorite teams. Know I believed he died of a pulmonary embolism, a blockage of an artery, and the lungs. He was buried at Westminster Abbey on the 13th of April, 1531. Frederick son Prince George, became heir apparent to the throne of Great Britain. The king wept with Augusta. The NIH director Princess of Wales. Regency Act was passed to make her reagent since her son would not come of age until 1756. The console was added by Prince William Jacob Cumberland on Frederick's brother. The King made a new well naming William as sole reagent in Hanover. George's daughter Louisa, died at the end of 1751 and he lamented, this has been a fiscal year for my family. I lost my eldest son, but I am glad of it. Now I Louisa has gone. I know I did not love my children when they were young. I handed to have them running into my room. But Nia, I love them as well as most fathers. Let's talk about the Seven Years War. Pelham died in 1754, almost succeeded by his elder brother, Thomas Pelham halls, first check of Newcastle, who you'll recall, had been insulted by George the Second at George Williams crystalline, hostility between France and Britain continued uncentered arrived the colonization of North America, fairing a French invasion of however, George aligned himself with Prussia, which was then ruled by his nephew Frederick the grant, Austria's animate. So he's switching his European allegiances. Russia on France, allied with our former animate Austria. The French invaded the British held island of Minorca. And 1756, the Seven Years War broke ICT. The public were not satisfied with new counselors handling of the war and he resigned. He was replaced by William Cavendish, the fourth chunk of Devin shore as Prime Minister. William Pitt, a Secretary of State for the Southern departments. And that's the department which later became the home office. George dismissed pit and April of the following year and a plan to create an administration he liked a bit more. He was not able to form stable cabinet for three months though. Pit was recalled at the start of July and New Castle returned as Prime Minister. Pit guided policy relating to the war. The war was fought in Europe, North America, and India. English dominance in India and Christ, after the victories of Major General Robert Clive, first borrower and five, it became known as Clive of India. He defeated the French at the bottom of our code on the Battle of Plassey. Prince William Duke of Cumberland command of the trips in Northern Germany, however, was invaded in 1757 on George gave his son par to conclude a separate piece, but he was furious at the final settlement which Haiti felt favored the French. He declared that his son had ruined May and disgraced himself. Harsh. Cumberland resigned his military officers on George revoked his deal on the grinds that the French had broken the terms by sanding, harassing trips after the ceasefire. 1759 was known as the ADA parabolas. So when you think of Queen Elizabeth the second satisfy ribulose, that was actually in reference to the annus mirabilis. British forces captured Quebec and Guadalupe defeated French invasion plans that Lagos and Hebrew Old Bay and stopped the French had thoughts on Han River at the bottom of the death of George the Second, by October 1760, George has become blind in one eye and lost much of his hearing. He got up on the 25th of October. I had a cup of hot chocolate, went to his bathroom and collapsed. His valid heard a crash, I'm fine. The king of the floor. He was lifted his bad I'm print sounds familiar with summand, but he was dead by the time she got to him. At 77, he was the oldest English or British king. He had a postmortem on the cause of death was fine to be thoracic, aortic dissection. So his aorta basically just came apart. He was succeeded by his grandson, George the Third. He was buried on the 11th of November at Westminster Abbey, having asked for his on his wife's coffins to be removed so that their remains could mix together. He's the most recent British monarch to be buried at Westminster Abbey. 52. George III Part I: Now we're going to talk about a very famous monarch, George the Third. And I've alluded to him here as the mad king who wrote much of the world but never left home. As an irony of the random George the Third, that a lot of things happened internationally during his reign. The loss of North America on the American War of Independence, changes to the slave trade and European wars, the French revolutionary wars and the Napoleonic wars especially. So all of that, how to provide the impact on the world. Yet, this man who contributed so much towards these situations never went more than a 100 miles from London. He's referred to as the mad King because unfortunately he suffered from poor mental health. And towards the end of his life, his son was appointed Prince Regent because he really wasn't capable of ruling. So much happened during the reign of George the Third. Some things related to him and something's not that I can't really cover all that. Just one video. For the first time in this course, I'm going to divide his lifetime and to FU videos. George the third is a motor because it seems to stay pretty much in the public consciousness a lot. Here is Nigel Hawthorne as George the Third and the movie The madness of King George with the inestimable Helen Marilyn as Queen Charlotte. George the Third and Black Adder. George the Third as depicted in Britain, which is a show that can't really be accused of historical accuracy, but it's very entertaining. And actually some of the depictions of George the Third and are very moving. And of course, George the Third and the Lin-Manuel Miranda musical Hamilton. His full name was George William Frederick. He lived from the fourth of Jane, 1730 it until the 29th of January 1820. He was King of Great Britain and Ireland from the 25th October 1760 until the 1st of January 1801, when the kingdoms became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, which changed his titles slightly. King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. He was also jig and print selector of Hanover, becoming King of Han over on the 12th of October, 1814. Unlike his predecessors, he was born in England and spoke English as his native language. He never visited. However, his reign was marked by conflict in Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Britain defeated France and the Seven Years War at the start of his rent, becoming the dominant part in North America and India. Britain went onto lose much of its North American territory following the American War of Independence. Wars against revolutionary France and Napoleon drew to a close with the British victory at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, which we're going to hear about later. In 1807, the transatlantic slave trade was banned from the British Empire. Later in life, George experience chronic mental illness. The cause of this remains unknown, but has thought to be bipolar disorder or the blood disease, porphyria. He suffered a final and serious relapse at 1810 on his son George, Prince of Wales, later George the Fourth became Prince Regent. Historical reaction to George has been very divergent opinions of him very, when you hear a story, you can see what you think. His early life. He was born on the fourth of June, 1738 at Norfolk high since at James's Square and London. He was the eldest son of Frederick Prince of Wales on augusta of socks and Geta. He was born two months prematurely and thought unlikely to survive. And now she lived her quite ripe old age and the end, he had a private than a public baptism when appeared, he would live after all his godparents where Frederick the first of Sweden, Frederik lethargic of SAC Sugata and his great Aunt Sophia Dorothea, queen of Prussia. And they all have proxies to stand in for them. None of them attended the ceremony. He was a healthy on shy child. The family moved to last or square, and George was educated by private chambers alongside his brother Edward, Duke of York. By the age of eight, he could read and write in English and German uncomment on current affairs. He was the first British monarch to formerly study science. Others who had been interested in science has really seen it as a hobby rather than a formal branch of study. He studied chemistry, physics, astronomy, mathematics, French, Latin history, music, geography, commerce, agriculture, unconstitutional law. He was also taught dancing, fencing, and writing, considered important for Georgia and gentlemen. His religious education was Anglican. Each ten, he performed to the joseph Addison play canto, delivering the line, what though a boy, it may with truth be said, a boy, an England born in England bread. He has sat, you have had those lines added to the prologue of the play. His grandfather, George, the second hint of his father, and therefore showed little interest in his grandchildren. But the Prince of Wales died unexpectedly and 1751, aged 44, George became heir apparent on jigs and breath. And at that point, his grandfather took an interest in him and created him Prince of Wales three weeks after his father's death. In 1765, shortly before he turned IT team. George was offered a ground establishment of the royal residence, it's James's Palace, by his grandfather. He declined on the advice of his mother, on her advisor Lord Bute, who later became prime minister. His mother had strict moral values and wanted to install these and her son what she did quite successfully. George the Third's marriage in 1759, George developed an attachment timidity. Sarah Lennox, the sister of Charles Linux, third trick of Richmond, but Lord Bute and fight against the match. And that love affair was the subject of the TV show, the aristocrats. If you'll remember, George lamented, I am born for the happiness or misery of a great nation. A consequence LEA must often act contrary to my passions. He resisted a match with Princess Sophie Carolina of Brunswick both and battle though. In 1760, George excavated as George the Third when his grandfather died and he was 22 at the time, and the starch for a suitable wife gathered ***. Then you came, married Princess Charlotte Mecklenburg strategies on the 8th of September 1761 at the Chapel Royal James's Palace. And they only met on their wedding day. The king and queen were crying. Westminster Abbey on the 22nd of September. George never had a mistress, which was actually considered quite unusual at the time. It made him quite popular with the public. On the marriage was happy until the onset of his mental illness. They had 5th in 18 children together, nine suns and six daughters. George bought Buckingham highest as a family retreat on the site of Buckingham highest as night occupied by Buckingham Palace. Other residences were queue palace and Windsor Castle. Wasn't James's Palace used for administration at basically became the office. George didn't travel much and spent his entire life and Southern England. The family spent summer holidays and the 1880s at Weymouth endorse it and that popularized the idea of the English seaside resort. The early Ran of George the Third Georgia succession speech to Parliament was written by Lord Hardwick, but he himself, out of the words, born and educated in this country, I glory and the name of Britain. His predecessors have been criticized for carrying more for Han over the Britain and he wanted to distance himself from that. Disagreements over the seven years war created political instability. At the start of George the Third's ran. Georgia is perceived as favoring the Tories and the Whigs declared him an autocrat. Crime lands met George little money and most of his revenue came via customs and exercises. George exchange the cryostat for Civil List annuity from parliament. It's fair to say that managing money wasn't really his thing. George built up debts at 3 million points over the course of his ran, which were paid by parliament. And as annuity was increased from time to time, George privately granted funds to the Royal Academy of Arts, and it's believed he may have donated half his personal income to charity, according to John Brooke and his book, King George the Third, written in 1972, the king is library was open to scholars and became the foundation for the National Library. In May 1760 to the Whig government of Thomas Pelham holes, the first week of Newcastle was arrested by the tourists under the Scottish Lord Bute buttes opponents spread a rumor that he was having an affair with Augusta, George's mother. Now he was her confidant, but that's all that we know that it was. They also exploited anti Scottish feeling among some English paper. So the AMP page on Wilkes who published the North Britain, was arrested for seditious libel and fled to France after publishing based if Fama tree rumors. Wilkes had been an MP, but was expelled from the House of Commons, and he was found guilty of blasphemy, unlikable. According to my esteemed colleague, Gavin suit, or media lawyer at the University of London. Lord Leslie Griffith, baron of Barry Porte, who is a current member of the House of Lords. Blasphemy laws weren't really a byte protecting Godfrey from protecting the church. Blasphemy laws historically in the UK have been about protecting this debt. So hence, he was found guilty of blasphemy. The Whigs returned to power under George Granville. The aftermath of the Seven Years War, britain was given significant territories including West Florida. Britton restored slip sugar islands to France in the West Indies, including Guadalupe and Martinique. France ceded Canada to Britain on all the lands from the Allegheny Mountains to the Mississippi River, except New Orleans, which was stated to spin in 1763, a royal proclamation and limited the westward expansion of the American colonies and created a reserve for Native Americans. And at the time named an Indian reserve, which when you think about it, a vein, this used to be your country and your allied on very small patches of it. It was not a nice situation for those people. This was intended to create colonial expansion northwards to Nova Scotia, on southwards to Florida, as well as protecting British fair trade with the Native Americans. The proclamation was unpopular with a vocal minority. There was conflict between colonists and the British government. The government wanted the colonists to start paying taxes to fund defence against uprising by the natives and possible French incursions. There were no American seats in parliament though, and the colonists felt that if they pay taxes like English citizens, they should have representation like English citizens. In 1765, Granville introduced the Stamp Act. Levying JD on every document in the British colonies in North America, newspapers were printed on stamp paper. Those most affected by the introduction of the Jedi Road depth at producing discourse opposing the tax? No, it's not like you could just send an email if you wanted to communicate, you have to send letters. It was going to involve quite a lot of money. The staff, Judy, at home grand full, attempted to reduce the king's prerogatives and tried unsuccessfully to persuade the elder to become Prime Minister. George became briefly L, after what she asked Lord Rockingham to form a ministry and dismissed Granville rocking and repealed the Stamp Act with support from Pitt on the king. He was replaced by pit and 1766 George created pit are loved. Chatham pit fell ill and 1767 on Augustus Fitzroy, logic of graft on takeover, although he did not formally become Prime Minister until 1768. Also in 1768, John Wilkes returned to England on top the pole and the Middlesex constituency and the general election. He was expelled from Parliament again, then reelected unexpected twice more. The House of Commons finally declared his candidacy and valid. And the Cairo General Henry laws lateral the runner-up as MP, graft and government fell apart. And 1770 on victorious return to power, led by Lord North, family strife, it struck again. George was Friday divides and viewed his brothers as a moral. And 1770 it came out that his brother Prince Henry check of Cumberland and Stratton had committed adultery. And remember that George himself was famous for his fidelity to his wife. He then married a young widow on Horton, whom george considered an inappropriate choice of y for a prince. She was from a lower social class. I'm so hot, a very in-law, a bond at a children they might have from the succession there. George insisted on a law that prevented members of the royal family from marrying without the permission of the monarch. The subsequent row was unpopular and even opposed by Georges ministers, but passed as the royal marriages act to 1772. It then came out with George's brother Prince William had re-jig of Gloucester, had secretly married maria contest world grave, illegitimate daughter of the politicians are Edward Walpole. Maria was related to Georgia's political opponents on so neither shade or on Horton wherever received at court. Lord North's government was mostly occupied with increasing discontent in America, most customs duties were withdrawn to try to carry favor with the American public, except for tax on tea, which George described as one tax to keep up the right to levy taxes. In 1773, colonists boarded merchant ships carrying tape which were murdered in Boston Harbor and through the tea overboard in an incident which became known as the Boston Tea Party. This hardened opinion in Britain against the colonists on Chatham agreed with north that the action had been certainly criminal. With parliaments support, Lord North introduced what the column is called the intolerable acts, shutting die in the Port of Boston and altering the charter of Massachusetts so that the upper highest of its legislature was appointed by the crime and stat of elected by the lower highs. And we have some idea what follows other, we're going to talk about it in the next video and just a moment, Professor Pedro Thomas articulates recent thinking about Georgia's involvement and the events which followed, which is contrary to previously held views. The detailed evidence of the years from 1763 to 1775 tends to exonerate George the Third from any real responsibility for the American Revolution. And you can see from the picture below here that that's maybe not a view held and the popular consciousness and America, he was traditionally depicted as a tyrant by both American and British historians. Although as a constitutional monarch, he couldn't act without parliament are the cabinet. He wasn't solely responsible for the war of independence, which we're about to talk about. 53. American George III and theWar of Independence : That brings us to a manager at most unfortunate incident in the mind of George the Third, the American War of Independence. There were 13 British American colonies which proved difficult to govern. The American War of Independence finally came byte after the American Revolution, which resulted from the American Enlightenment, which was a movement which promoted religious freedom, restored the providence of music and the arts. I began to apply scientific principles to more areas of study. Key issues included the lack of representation for Americans in Parliament, the levying of taxes without their consent. The colonists resisted the imposition of direct row after the Boston Tea Party. By 1774, they had created self-governing provinces to circumvent the apparatus of British rule. Here is a map of the British colonies in America at the time. And as you can see, it's quite a lot of land. The battles of Lexington and Concord broke out between British government trips and American militias. And April 1775, parliament ignored petitions to the crime for intervention and declared the rebel leaders as traitors. A year of fighting followed. British born American philosopher Thomas Paine, refer to George the Third as the royal bright of Great Britain and his book Common Sense. In July 1776, the colonies declared independence and listed 27 grievances against the king and Parliament whilst asking for the support of the public, of George himself, they said he has abdicated government here. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. Statue of the king of New York was posed on the British captured New York and Los Boston and 1776, the ground plan which was to invade from Canada and cut off New England, failed when British Lieutenant General John Burgoyne surrendered after the Battle of Saratoga, which decisively ended the campaigns and Saratoga, which had followed this plan. Lord North was not an inspiring Prime Minister, and it was George the Third who endeavor to give parliament a sense of purpose in this war, North managed to keep his cabinet to gather though. Lord doors cabinet ministers, they are a sandwich. First Lord of the Admiralty and Lord George Germain, Secretary of State for the colonies, however, proved to lack leadership skills suited for their positions. Which in turn, that the American war effort, not just as a little aside, a very interesting English invention which has become a key part of world queasy, the sun, which of course named after the art of sandwich. George refused to acknowledge American independence and punish the former colonies with a prolonged war which he thought would wear them died. He believed they would give in unacknowledged britain's sovereignty. Later historians point out that no other contemporary European king would have given up so larger territory willingly, Sir George wasn't unusual and his stamps, after the British defeats at Saratoga, both parliaments of the British public favored war. Recruitment levels were high and political opposition was expressed, but only by a minority. Lord North wanted to transfer his par to Lord Chatham pit the elder, but Georgia refused to permit this. He wanted to chat them to serve as subordinate to North, but Chatham refused to do so. He died later that year, shot him dead. That is, Lord North was allied to the so-called King's friends and parliament. And believe George the Third hot the right to exercise pars front sine to the alliance with the United States in 1778. Of course, the former animates of Britain and the Seven Years War. And the conflict escalated. The French fleet ICT rather British naval blockade of the Mediterranean on sale to North Africa. Having, being a kind of civil war within America, this becomes a global conflict at this point. The conflict NIH affected Europe, North America, and India. In 1779, the United States and France were joined by span on the Dutch republic. Britain had no major allies, but it did have German auxiliaries and American loyalists to call upon. When Lord Gora, Lord Weymouth resign from the government. Lord North also asked to be a large resign again, but George insisted that he stay in office. The summer of 1779 are French and Spanish naval fleet with a ride, 31 thousand French troops looked SAT to invade England. And that was a real crisis towards called this the most serious crisis the nation ever knew. 66 warships entered the English Channel in August, but were driven back by sickness, hunger on adverse winds. In 1779, George proposed sending British warships and troops guarding the channel to the West End day saying, we must risk something, otherwise we will only vegetate and this war i, o, and I wish either with spirit to get through it or with a crash be ruined. 7 thousand British troops were sent in January 1780, led by General Sir John von. The war was costly and opposition to it was starting to increase at this point. This was one factor and the otherwise anti-Catholic Gordon riots, series of riots in London and June 1780. That year, the British defeated the Americans and their allies at the Battle of cotton on the bottom of Guilford Court heist American loyalists, the belief that could eventually be victorious. On the 19th of October, 1781, general Lord Cornwallis surrendered at the stage of Yorktown and Virginia on Thanks, started to turn against the British. Lord North lost parliamentary support after this on resigned the following year, the king prepared an abdication notice. I though it was never delivered so serious whilst the situation in America, he finally accepted the fate on authorized paste negotiation. The treaties of Paris, by which britain recognized the independence of the American states and return Florida to spin were signed in 17821783. George perceived, but the Americans were not what he called Britain, successful rivals and tread on fishing. John Adams became American Minister to London in 1785. On George told him, I was the last to consent to the separation. But the separation having been met on having become inevitable, I have always said, as I say not, that I would be the first to meet the friendship of the United States as an independent power. 54. George III Part 2 : Let's now hear more of the story of George the Third. And we're going to talk about the prime minister ship of William Pitt the younger, and the onset of Georgia's mental illness. When Lord North's ministry collapsed in 1782, the wake Lord Rockingham became Prime Minister for a second time, but died months later. The king appointed Lord shall burn as prime minister. But the prominent wake Charles James Fox refused to serve under shall burn. He demanded the appointment of William Cavendish band tank, the third Jacob Portland in 1783. The highest of comments forced shell born from office on his government was replaced by the fox North coalition. Portland became prime minister, fox became foreign secretary and Lord North became home secretary. Not the kingdom, tested foxes politics and also his personality. He considered him unprincipled on a per influence on the Prince of Wales. The Portland ministry accrued a majority of the House of Commons though, and couldn't be easily displaced. The India bill dismay George, it proposed a transfer of political part NDF from the East India Company to parliamentary commissioners, the king favorite grid or controller of the company. But the commissioners were all allies of fox. The bell was rejected by the House of Lords after George said Lord tempo to tell the highest that he would regard any Lord who voted to pass it as a personal animate. This is the kind of incident which led to the situation we have today with a monarch is not too large to get involved in politics. Three days later for the Portland ministry was dismissed on pet the younger was appointed as Prime Minister. Tempo became his Secretary of State on the 17th of December 1783. Parliament photo than favor of emotion condemning the influence of the monarch and parliamentary voting as a high crime on tempo was forced to resign. The government lost That's majority. Three months later on, parliament was dissolved. Pet gain to the size of mamba and the general election which followed George the third is of course remember today as the mad king, his illness was not understood well in his day and it's still not really very well understood today. But let's hear a little bit about high at Kim arm and what effects it had. Pets appointment was a victory for George and that it showed he could appoint a prime minister without recourse to the majority in the House of Commons. George supported many of pits political aims and create a new pairs at an unprecedented rate to increase the number of pits supporters and the House of Lords. George was extremely popular drink pip, the youngest tenure. His religious faith and his fidelity to his wife were seen as grit virtues by the public. To o Georgia sons died in infancy and 17821783. And he was devastated because he was very fond of his children. He was nevertheless strict with them and assisting his children's study rigorously from 07:00 AM and lead lives of religious virtue. His sons strayed from his values as young adults switch disappointed him greatly. Georgia began to exhibit acute mania, which may have been a sign of porphyria. When his hair was examined and 2005, it was fine to contain high levels of arsenic, which may have triggered this disease. Arsenic may have been used in his medicines or cosmetics. We just don't know. He may have had a brief episode and 1765, but a longer episode commenced in the summer of 1788. He went to chump them spotter or caper it when the parliamentary session ended, it was about a 100 miles from London, which was the furthest from London here ever been. His condition unfortunately worsened. By November he began talking for ours with ICT Paul's foaming at the mouth on becoming horse. He wrote sentences with over 400 words and began to use ICT lambda Sj flamboyant language. This may have been a symptom of bipolar disorder. Bizarre rumors spread, some of which you may have heard, such as a story that he shook hands with a tray, believing it to be the King of Prussia. George was physically restrained by his doctors on traded with caustic PO2s, which was a pretty barbaric way to treat people with mental illnesses. In Parliament, Fox and pit locked towards over the terms of urgency, while George was unfit to run. Both a great, The Prince of Wales should act his region, the Fox Valley, the prints, how to write to act in his father's behalf with full royal parts. Pit fair. The prints would remove him from office and argued that parliament should nominate a reagent. I wanted to restrict the authority of the reagent. The Regency bot was passed by the House of Commons in 1789, but before it reached the Lord's, George recovered. 55. Abolition of the Slave Trade: We're now going to talk about something quite dark and Britain's history, and that was the slave trade. Britain had been involved in the slave trade since the 16th century. You'll remember back to our videos on the cheaters. And by the random George, the Third, 80% of Britain's foreign income came from the slave trade and from businesses associated with slavery. It was no small thing to try to abolish it. The most famous abolitionist and British history was William Wilberforce, who loved the parliamentary campaign to half the slave trade abolished. And it was quite an epic journey as we're about to find out. Let's talk a little bit about George the Third's own audit shade to slavery. The 1980's, George wrote a document denied saying all the arguments for slavery. According to Andy Roberts, historian on journalists, you'll note that at that period in history, people were actually putting forward arguments for slavery, which is of course something that would just never happen. And the modern edge, he never bought or sold the slave earn better than companies which use slave labor. And he signed legislation to abolish slavery. During the random George, the Third, abolitionists and Atlantic slave uprisings turn public opinion against slavery. George and his son, Jacob Clarence, who later became William the fourth, nonetheless supported the London Society of Western DEA planters and merchants to delay the abolition of slavery. What impact the younger wanted to abolish slavery. But the cabinet was divided on a king was endorsing pro slavery action. So he refrained from making abolition government policy. He worked towards abolition as a private individual. The 7th of November, 1775, during the American War of Independence, a proclamation was issued by John Murray, lord Dunmore at the Royal Governor of Virginia, freeing slaves of rebel masters. Some slaves escaped from captivity and fought for the British. On the 30th of June, 1779, George the Third's Commanding General Henry Clinton broadened the proclamation with his fellow Pittsburgh proclamation, which allowed colonial slaves who flat the rebel masters freedom from recapture on resale with protection from the British army. It's not about slavery being immoral or trying to help people who have been enslaved. It's a byte shoring up their own position from a British point of view, 20 thousand freed slaves joined the British, and 3 thousand slaves were given certificates of freedom unsettled with their families and Nova Scotia, between 17912200, thousand African people were shipped to slaves to the Americas on 1340, slaving voyages launched for British ports including Bristol and Liverpool. The British had been involved in the slave trade since the 16th century. By 1783, there was a triangular rate which tech British made goods to Africa for use and buying slaves, transported enslaved individuals to the West Indies, then brought slave grown products including sugar, tobacco, and cotton to Britain. That's accounted for 80% of Britain's foreign income. British ships dominated the slave trades and supply the French, spanish, Dutch, Portuguese, and British colonies with slaves. The conditions of the so-called Middle Passage, the transatlantic crossing, where horrifying 1.4 million of 11 million Africans transported into slavery died on route. The abolitionist movement is generally thought to have started in the 1880s with the establishment of the quicker anti-slavery committees. They presented the first antislavery petition to Parliament in 1783. That year, the famous abolitionist or so he would become William Wilberforce was starting with his Cambridge friend Jared ovens, when he met Reverend James Rumsey, a clergyman who had been a ship's surgeon on the island of Saint Christopher, letters and kits and the leeward islands. He was a medical supervisor at the plantations there. And he related the atrocious conditions he had witnessed at say, armed and the plantations. Ramsey had returned to England in 1781 and that Sir Charles and letting Middleton, Thomas Clarkson, how NMR and others who formed the grape later called the Task two knights who were abolitionists from tests on their interest was in promoting Christianity overseas. They were like an emission rate organization. That their horror at what Ramsey had experienced cause them to become committed abolitionists. They were disgusted by the deprived lifestyles of the slave owners, the terrible cruelty endured by enslaved individuals, and the lack of Christian teaching given to the slaves. With their support, Ramsey spent three years writing an essay on the treatment and conversion of African slaves at the British sugar colonies, which attack the institution of slavery and the West Indies. The book which was published in 1784, was to have an important impact and raising public awareness. And it encouraged the anger of West Indian planters in the coming years, I taught both Ramsey himself on his ideas and a series of pro-slavery tract. At first Wilberforce didn't follow up in his meeting with Ramsay, but three years later, after his conversion to Christianity, wilberforce became interested and humanitarian reform. He was a committed Christian by them, I believe some polls views on slavery expressed in the epistles to Galatians and fellow man, that all people were equal on that slavery was apparent to anti-Christian. He received a letter from Sir Charles Middleton and November 1860s, which turned his attention to the slave trade. Lady Middleton has suggested that Wilberforce, who was an MPI, raise the issue and parliament. Wilberforce responded that he felt the grit importance of the subject and thought himself unequal to the task a lot of to him. But yet we're not positively decline that he was waiting to see if someone else would take it on. Basically, he read widely on the subject. I met the test on nights at the middle since home at Baran courts intestine and the winter of 1786 to seven. In early 1787, Thomas Clarkson cold to see him with a Cambridge award winning essay on the slave trade. This was the first meeting of two man who had worked together for 50 years. Clarkston visited Wilberforce every week to bring him firsthand evidence up bite the slave trade. The Quakers arched Clark's and to encourage Wilberforce to bring the issue of slavery to the attention of Parliament. It was a range that Bennett plankton and linkage or landowner, a mutual acquaintance of Wilberforce and Clarkson would organize a dinner party in order to ask Wilberforce formulate to lead the parliamentary campaign. This took place on the 13th of March, 1787. Other MPs were there and including William Windham and Isaac Hawkins, Brian Wilberforce, a grade to bring up the abolitionist cause provided that no person more proper could be found. The same spring on the 12th of May 1787, the still hesitant Wilberforce held a conversation with William Pitt, the future Prime Minister William Granville, as they sat under a large oak tree on Pitts estate. And can't the tree became known as the Wilberforce OK. Pit challenge Wilberforce who was his friend to get notice of emotion on the subject of the slave trade, saying, you have already taken grid pans to collect evidence and are therefore fully entitled to the credit, which doing so will ensure you do not lose time or the grind will be occupied by another. It was then that Wilberforce fully committed to a parliamentary campaign to abolish slavery. Well, to abolish the slave trade. The abolitionist didn't actually achieve an end of already enslaved persons being freed. But they believe that if they could abolish the tread than slavery would eventually just die out. And that was unfortunately a little naive. Wilberforce believed he had a spiritual calling on his life and wrote in his journal in 1787 that God Almighty has set before me to grid objects. The suppression of the slave trade and the Reformation of Manners monitors meaning moral values. The Georgians were famously a very sort of morally lacks society where reputation on the appearance of morality actually moderate a bit more than behaving in a moral way. If you've ever read Alexander Pope's the Rape of the Lock, you'll know what I mean. The scriptures that really talked about slavery that might have stood out to Wilberforce where this one, there is neither true nor gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female for you are all one in Christ Jesus. I'm not as in the Epistle to the Galatians chapter three verse 28, night from our century, this seems pretty obvious, the idea of people being equal. But in the classical world, the ancient worlds, when this was first written, there is absolutely no way that a Roman citizen or a Greek would have compared themselves to a Slave and thought themselves on an equal footing to a Slave. And actually the appeal of Christianity to that first generation of Christians walls that if you were a slave, you were valued because in the ancient world on unfortunately and the many, many centuries that followed, slave had a value to a high. So the way we today might value our toaster, our cattle, something that was there to suit your needs. And when it didn't, then you replaced it with something else. Another scripture that would've impacted Wilberforce was this and the pencil to fellowmen, chapter web 16 to 17. And Paul talks about a slave who had escaped at that culture. A slave who had tried to skip walls to have been executed. But some Polo writes, no longer as a slave, but better than a slave as a dare brother of the slave known as anatomists. He is very dare to me, but even dearer to you, both as a fellow man and as a brother in the Lord. So if you consider me a partner, welcome him as you would welcome mesas appall, who was a Roman citizen, puts himself on the same social fitting as a slave. And that was incredibly revolutionary for the time. So it's this sort of biblical message that is impacting the evangelical Christian, that is Wilberforce. The 22nd of May 1787, the first meeting of the society for effecting the abolition of the slave trade took place. Bringing like-minded British Quakers and icons together and the same organization for the first time, many members of the great believed that slavery would disappear at the slave trade was abolished. So campaigned against the tread rather than slavery itself. And I've already mentioned that that was a little bit naive. Today, in 2022, there are 40 million enslaved people in the world. Wilberforce did not officially join the committee until 1791. The society successfully raise public awareness of the issue and local chapters grew through ICT Britain. Clarkson traveled the country collecting first-hand accounts and evidence about the slave trade. The committee published pamphlets, secured press, organized boycotts, Designed what we in modern days would call a logo that you can see here to the right with a picture of a kneeling slave. The words which we would call a tagline, of course, I not a man and a brother. This was designed by the renowned potter Josiah Wedgwood. The committee also sought to influence slave trading nations such as France, Spain, Portugal, Denmark, Holland on the United States. Corresponding with anti-slavery activists and other countries and organizing the translation of English language books and pamphlets. And these included books by former slaves, October cookie yada, yada Equiano, whose book I have read and really highly recommend. His works in the slave trade had become influential on publication in 17871789, respectively. They and other former slaves known as sons of Africa, spoke it to bidding societies and wrote two newspapers, periodicals and public figures from 1788, hundreds of petitions opposing the slave trade or sent to Parliament. It was the first grassroot Human Rights Campaign. Wilberforce a plan to introduce his motion giving notice that he would be submitting a bot for the abolition of the slave trade during the 1890s parliamentary session. But he took alien January 1788 with what is now thought to have been ulcerative colitis. He called the elastic path in Cambridge and cannot resume work for several months. He was traded with opium, which he used for the rest of his life. Wilberforce's opsins pit and reduce the introductory motion himself. He ordered a privy council investigation into the slave trade, followed by a House of Commons review. When the Privy Council Report was published in April 1789, Wilberforce commenced his parliamentary campaign. He made his first major speech on the issue and the height of comments on the 12th of May 1789. He used Clark since evidence to describe conditions and horrifying detail. He moved 12 resolutions concerning the slave trade, but made no reference to the abolition of slavery itself. Instead of dwelling on the potential for reproduction and the existing slave population, should the trade payable polished. His opponents delayed the vote by proposing that the House of Commons here its own evidence. Wilberforce reluctantly agreed and has been criticized for it as it prolonged the slave trade. The hearings were deferred until the following year. Meanwhile, Wilberforce and Clark's and tried unsuccessfully to take advantage of the egalitarian atmosphere of the French Revolution, to press for fronts as abolition of the slave trade, which was abolished in 1794 as a result of the bloody slave revolt. And San Domain medical handy, later briefly restored by Napoleon in 1802. In January 1798, Wilberforce managed to speed up the parliamentary process by Ghani approval for us select committee to hear evidence. Wilberforce's high pseudo palace yard became a center for the campaign at its strategy meetings. And supporters of other causes also called on him there. There was a general election in June 1790, but the committee finally finished hearing witnesses and April 1791, Wilberforce's speech to the House of Commons on the 18th of April, 1791. Here's an excerpt from it anyway. Let us not despair. It is a blessing. Cause on success ere long will cry in our exertions. Already we have good one victory we have obtained for those per creatures, the recognition of their human nature, which for awhile was most shim fully denied. This is the first fruits of our effort. Let us persevere on our triumph will be complete. Never, never will be desist till we have wiped away this scandal from the Christian name, released ourselves with a load of guilt under which we at present labor and extinguished every trace of this bloody traffic of which are posterity, looking back to the history of these enlightened times, will scarce believe that it has been suffered to exist so long at disgrace and dishonor to this country. On that was from his speech, which actually lasted for four Rs. And it's entirely nevertheless, the bell was defeated by a 163 votes to Eddie. It. This was due to the reactionary conservatism caused by the French Revolution. The French Revolution had sent shock waves throughout Europe, threatened the world order, on the social order that Europeans knew. And it was associated with incredible bloodshed. Also the radicalism of slave revolts in the West End days contributed towards the defeat of the bill. Wilberforce was suspected by some obeying a Jacobin, a member of a political club which supported the French Revolution. And that would practically I've made him an ICT cast. Despite the hostility he know I faced, Wilberforce persisted and his campaign, he and his fellow abolitionists, evangelicals were dumped the sense and lived in high-rises surrounding clap on common. Copm was at that point a village southwest of London. The thin shared an intimate community life centered around Christianity and a dedication to the abolition of the slave trade. And they popped in and out of each other's houses to discuss this. Pro-slavery arguments suggested that Africans were uncivilized and benefited from bondage. The abolitionists were keen to demonstrate the Africans, and in particular, the freed slaves with their acquaintance, were cultured with economic capacity beyond the slave trade. They became involved in the establishment of the colony of Sierra Leone with black settlers from Britain, Nova Scotia, and Jamaica, with native Africans on some white settlers. Wilberforce gave money and time to the Sierra Leone Company. The British government assumed responsibility for the colony. And it Tino, it was a symbol of anti-slavery with communities and African tribal chiefs working to prevent slavery at the source, supported by a British naval blockade to stem the region slave trade. Wilberforce brought another bot calling for abolition on the second of April 1792. There followed a memorable debate with contributions from the younger Charles James Fox on Wilberforce. Henry done this, the Home Secretary proposed a compromise, solution of gradual abolition of the slave trade over a number of years. The bill passed by 230 votes to 85. On the 27th of February, 1793. Another vote to abolish the slave trade lost by it votes. War with France had broken light on the threat of invasion, caused a national crisis the same year and again in 1794, Wilberforce unsuccessfully brought before Parliament about to outlaw British ships from supplying slaves to foreign colonies. Wilberforce himself became preoccupied with the war with France, which he opposed. This temporarily code has long-term friendship with pip the younger. During the war, henry done does Pitt, Secretary of State for war, ordered the Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica, or adam Williamson to sign an agreement with the French colonists, the San Domingue, later heady that promised to restore the wholesalers regime, which reinstated slavery and discrimination against mixed risk colonists. Wilberforce on Clark were appalled. Abolition continued to be associated with the French Revolution. Unfortunately, in the public consciousness. Nsf E9.5, the Society for effecting the abolition of the slave trade ceased to meet. And Clarkson retired and ill-health to the Lake District. Leave to bring a bell on the abolition of the slave trade was refused by the House of Commons in 1795. The same measure was rejected by 74 votes to 70 on the 15th of March, 1796. Wilberforce complaint that AMP2 could've passed the boat were up the opera. Wilberforce continued to introduce abolition bells throughout the 17 nineties, despite decreasing interest of the subject. In 1804, Clarkson resumed his work and the Society for effecting the abolition of the slave trade began meeting again, strengthened with prominent new members such as Zachary Macaulay, Henry Brian, and James Stephen. In June 1804, Wilberforce's bowed to abolish the slave trade passed in the House of Commons, but was too late on the parliamentary session to pass through the House of Lords. It was reintroduced and defeated. And Latino five, with even the usually sympathetic pit withdrawing his support. Wilberforce was a trusting and somewhat naive individual who believed people would eventually do the right thing. He did not confront them when they didn't. When Pitt died in 1806, Wilberforce began to collaborate with the Whigs, his support for the ground. Both Fox administration brought more abolitionists enter the Capulet Wilberforce and Charles Fox had with the campaign of the commons whilst lord grand Bowl champion that and the lords, the maritime lawyer, Jim Stevens suggests that a radical change of tactics, a very clever change of tactics. The introduction of a bill bonding British subjects from adding, are participating in the slave trade and the French colonies. The majority of British slave ships were flag American flags, and supplying slave to colonies of countries with which Britain was at war, sophistic would affect a plate, put an end to the tread. The bell was introduced and approved by cabinet and Wilberforce's calling maintains silence. It was not to draw attention to the true aims of the bill. The foreign slave trade Bell was quickly past and given royal assent on the 23rd of May it Taino six. Lord Granville, the Prime Minister, was determined to put forward an abolition bill and the House of Lords, this would take it through its greatest challenge. First, as the commons was more likely to be sympathetic than the Lord's, it passed in the Lord's by a large margin. Charles Grey, move for a second rating. And the Coleman's on the 23rd of February 1807, tributes were paid to Wilberforce as tears pour down his face. His battle was nearly won. The bell path by 283 votes to 16. The Slave Trade Act was given royal assent on the 25th of March. It takes 07. In 2007 at the bicentennial of the abolition of the slave trade, Queen Elizabeth the second, participated in a church service to recognize Britain's involvement and the slave trade. It fell short of a full apology though, as the van Prime Minister Tony Blair did not want the UK to be open to calls for reparation. And I've included an article, a bite bought incident in the resources for this course. It must be recalled, as I said before, that this did not free slaves on plantations. It only stopped the continuing slave trade, although that was an incredible victory. One of the most inaccurate beliefs that you can pick up a bite slavery though, is that it's over. We don't have a legal slave trade at anywhere in the world today. But yet, in 2020 to 40 million people are estimated to be trapped and modern slavery worldwide, 14 of them are children. Almost three-quarters of them are women and girls, mostly used to fuel the Global Sex and the strike. This comes from www.antislavery.org. 56. Wellington and Waterloo : Now let's talk about another important event of the random George the Third, say defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo by the Duke of Wellington. And the Napoleonic Wars generally, the French revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. George and Pitt both saw an increase in popularity after George recovered from his illness. Fox and the Prince of Wales decreased in popularity at the same time, George was so unconcerned with James had failed, tried to shoot him at the Theatre Royal and Jeremy Lin on the 15th of May 1800 that he fell asleep. And the interval, the shading was not political, but motivated by Hatfields delusional visions and those of his associate pastor tree log. British landowners were very concerned by the effects of the French Revolution which broke out in 1789. At that time, however, violence against the king would have been concerning to the public. France declared war on Britain in 1793, and in response, George gave pet freedom to raise taxes, recruit an army, and suspend the right of habeas corpus, the right to a trial if you are detained. In 1795, the first coalition to depose revolutionary France broke up and had included Austria, Prussia, and spin, and the latter two steps made peace with France. The Second Coalition made up of Austria, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire was defeated in 1800. Grit Britain was left alone and the fight against Napoleon Bonaparte, the first console of the French Republic. There had been an uprising and attempted French invasion in Ireland in 1799, which Pitt address during a level and the fighting with France. In 1800, the British and ours parliaments pass an act of union that took effect on the 1st of January at one. And the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland came into being. Georgia bonds and the title of king of France, which English monarchs have used since the reign of Edward the third and the Hundred Years War. They remember the Edward the third felt he had a strong claim to the throne of France. Pip plant remove limitations first by Catholics to ameliorate the situation in Ireland. But George maintained that the emancipation of Catholics would contravene his coronation oath and which he had sworn to uphold Protestantism. With opposition to his religious reform policies coming from both the king and the British public, pets threatened to resign. The king had a relapse of his illness, which he attributed to his anxiety over Catholic emancipation. On the 14th of March, 1801, pit was formerly replaced by the Speaker of the House of Commons, Henry Arlington Addington opposed Catholic emancipation, abolished income tax, created annual accounts, and began a disarmament program. He made peace with France and anti-node one on signed the Treaty of Amiel and 180 to this end of the revolutionary wars. But the Napoleonic course we're still to come. George didn't believe the pace was real and described it as an experiment. He turned out to be right, the word resent in 1803, the public didn't trust Abington as a war leader and instead favored pit. It seemed likely that Napoleon would invade England. And a huge volunteer movement was a masked George's review of 27 thousand volunteers in Hyde Park, London on the 27th and 28th of October 1803, at the height of the invasion scare, attracted an estimated 500 thousand spectators each day, as pictured below. George wrote to his friend, but she apart. We are here in daily expectation that Bonaparte will attempt his threatened and vision. Should his tropes effect a lambda, I shall certainly put myself at the head of mine, my other arm subjects to repel them. The invasion threat was quashed though, with Lord Nelson's famous victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. George became ill again in 1804, when he recovered, Addington resigned and PATRIC empire pet wanted to appoint Fox to the ministry with George refused. And so Lord Grand volt refused to join the ministry and protests feeling that box have been treated unfairly pit form the Third Coalition with Austria, Russia and Sweden. It collapsed in 1905 and pet died and anti-nodes six, Granville became Prime Minister and his ministry of all the talents as it was known, included Fox. It was Granville who pushed through the slave trade activate Tino seven, you'll recall the king was not conciliatory towards Fox. Fox died in 1806. The king and the ministry came into conflict. The ministry, he proposed a measure to ally Catholics to serve in all ranks of the armed forces. And at Tino seven, George wanted this measure of bond are never proposed again. The ministers are great to drop it for the time being. They were dismissed and replaced by William Cavendish pen tank, third week of Portland as a nominal Prime Minister, with actual par being held by the Chancellor of the Exchequer sped sir Percival. There was a general election which returns a large majority for the ministry. Georgia third, med, no more political decisions for the rest of his reign. Now we're going to talk about that very famous Battle of Waterloo. It's not just an AABA song. By 1815, Napoleon Bonaparte had become the dominant political figure and Europe after his involvement in the French Revolution here become first console of the French Republic. From 1799 to 1804, and then Emperor of the French from 2214. After the invasion of Paris by the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba between Corsica on Italy, but he returned apart and 1815, Napoleon is still considered to be one of the greatest military strategists of history. And his strategies are still studied today. And his number of victories was impressive. The famous Battle of Waterloo took place on Sunday the 18th of June, 1815. And Waterloo, and what was then the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Belgium. The French army of Napoleon was defeated by two of the armies of the seventh Coalition. One was British lead with units from the UK, the Netherlands, Hanover, Brunswick, and nasa. It was commanded by Arthur Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington. The other army was a larger Prussian force led by Gephardt Labor Act, bold blue. The battle mark, the end of the Napoleonic wars. It was known in France as the Battle of moments on Joel and in Paris as La Belle Alliance, the beautiful alliance. Little bit of the history that led up to the battle when Napoleon returned to par and March 1815, several states which had opposed him in the past join to form the seventh Coalition and began to mobilize armies. Wellington and blockers armies were stationed near the north eastern border of France. Napoleon plan to attack each of these armies separately to prevent them from launching a combined vision of France. He knew he could only stay on par if he had talked before the coalition fully mobilized coalition troops and Belgium where second line and their ability and their loyalty where perhaps questionable with seasoned British troops who had fought and the potential for war based in North America to fight the war of 1812. And the colonists, Napoleon successfully attack the Prussian army on the 16th of June and linear forced the Prussians to withdraw northwards the next day, but they were still parallel to Wellington's army and infighting order. Napoleon sent a third of a sports against oppression, rear guard. And the Battle of weird row was fought from the tapes to the 19th of June, preventing the French course from engaging at Waterloo. A small number of French troops engaged while it has Army at the Battle of Khafra, the buffalo forearms, on the 16th of June, the Prussians withdrew and forced Wellington to withdraw northwards to Waterloo. Learning that the Prussian army could offer support, violence and prepare to give battle near the village of Waterloo. By 15 kilometers south of Brussels. He withstood attacks from the French on the afternoon of the 18th of Jane, as the Prussians arrived in streams, the Prussians at TACC, the French flanks on inflicted heavy casualties. In the evening, Napoleon assaulted the onco, Allied line with his last reserves, the senior infantry battalions of the Imperial Guard, elite soldiers under the direct command of Napoleon himself. The Prussians broke through the French right flank and Wellington's army subdued the Imperial Guard. The French were defeated. Wellington described the bottle as the nearest drum thing you ever saw in your life. Napoleon abdicated for dice later and the coalition forces entered Paris on the 7th of July. It tink 15th. Napoleon's role as emperor of the French, the so-called 100 days. His tenure after his return from exile came to an end. Asked at the first French Empire, the Pax Britannica began a time of relative peace between European wars. During this time, britain became a global policeman. In a sense, on a world par, the losses were horrifying. Wellington's army sustained a loss of 15 thousand dead or wounded with blew her, losing seven thighs and it 110 of whom came from just one unit, the 18th regiments, they want 33 iron crosses, which were Prussian brave re metals. Napoleon's casualties came to 24 to 26 thousand men killed or wounded. Six to 7 thousand were captured and 15 thousand deserted after the Battle of an over the days which followed. Here as an eyewitness, a kind from major WA fry written on the 22nd of June 1815. This morning I went to visit the field of battle, which is a little beyond the village of Waterloo on the plateau of months on job. But on arrival there, the site was too horrible to behold. I felt sick in the stomach and was obliged to return. The multitude of carcasses, the heaps of wounded man with my angled limbs unable to move and perishing from not having their wounds dressed or from hunger, as the Allies were of course, obliged to take their surgeons and wagons with them, form the spectacle I shall never forget the windowed. Both of the allies of the French remain in an equally deplorable state. Napoleon wrote to the Prince Regent, who was acting on behalf of George the Third, who was L, to tender his recognition of the fate. Royal Highness exposed to the factions which divide my country until the end Mateo of the grid parts of Europe, I have terminated my political career and I come like Themistocles to throw myself upon the hospitality must swell silhouette of the British people. I claim from your Royal Highness the protection of the laws and throw myself upon the most powerful, the most constant and the most generous of my enemies. 57. Later Years of George III : The later years of George the third teen ten, George suffered a relapse of his psychiatric condition. He was in pain with arthritis and nearly blind with cataracts. I myself suffer from arthritis and cataracts, so I sympathize. And actually if you spot any typos in this course, that is why his condition was particularly severe this time, it was thought to have been triggered by the death of his youngest unfavorite daughter, Princess Amelia. Her nurse recorded that the scenes of distress and crying every day where Melancholy beyond description. The Regency Act in 1811, appointed to the Prince of Wales as regent, a role he maintained for the rest of his father's life despite signs of recovery. And they asked him 11. This time, George remand permanently unwell and was included in Windsor Castle for the remainder of his life. And it seemed 12, the Prime Minister Spencer Percival was assassinated on lord Liverpool, replaced him. He oversaw Britain's victory and the Napoleonic Wars. The gains made by Han River after the Napoleonic Wars upgraded it from an electrode to a kingdom. And so George became King of Hanover. George developed dementia and became increasingly blind and deaf. So he didn't know that he was King of Han River or the Queen Charlotte had died in 1818. At Christmas 1819, he spoke incoherently for 58 hours at a stretch. He then became unable to walk. George the Third died of pneumonia at Windsor Castle at 08:38 PM on the 29th of January 18th, 26 days after the death of his fourth son, Prince Edward Jacob Kent. His fair for some prints. Fredrick Duke of York at Albany was with him when he died. He lay in state for two days and was buried on the 16th of February. And St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. The Prince Regent then became George the Fourth. He was 57 years old at the time. 58. George IV: Regemcy and Reign: Now we come to the last king George of the Georgian era, George the Fourth. Of course we've had six Georges and total. He was a bit more known for his style than his substance, but his style was quite fabulous as we'll see. His full name was George Augustus Frederick. And he lived from the 12th of August 1762 to the 26th of June 1830. He was Prince Regent from the 5th of February 1811 when his father developed a serious mental illness. And he was came from the 29th of January 18281. George the Third died. It was the eldest child had George the Third, I'm Queen Charlotte has extravagant lifestyle dominant at the fashions of the Regency Era. He famously commissioned John Nash to build the royal pavilion and brighten notch also renovated Buckingham Palace and contributed towards what it is today. He commissioned Jeffrey Wyatt foe to rebuild Windsor Castle. He's known for his charm and culture, adding him the nickname, the first gentleman of England. But he was also thought of as profligate and a PR relationships with his wife and his parents. His attitude to his wife, particularly Carolina Brunswick, damage not only his own public image, but respect for the monarchy generally. George the Fourth presided over the British Empire's growth as a hegemonic par, meaning a dominant world power, but it has association with scandal and overspending overshadowed this. Ministers find himself fish and irresponsible listening too much to his favorites. Lord Liverpool, the Prime Minister controlled has government. Liverpool presided over the ads, the Napoleonic Wars and the subsequent peace settlement. He had only one legitimate child, Princess Charlotte, who very sadly died in 1817, so she didn't succeed him. He was succeeded by his brother William the fourth. Let's hear a little about his early life. He was born in some James's Palace on the 12th of August 1762. It became Duke of Cornwall and Jake with Rossi at birth. A few days later he became Prince of Wales and our love Chester. On the 18th of September, he was baptized by Thomas sack or the Archbishop of counter break, his godparents. And we've heard before that who the golf parents are of a child is very telling his godparents where his uncle Adolphus Frederick, the fourth Jacob Mecklenburg strategics, his mother's brother, his great uncle Prince William Jacob Cumberland, and his grandmother, the Dark Princess of Wales. He was a gifted students and quickly became proficient and French, German, and Italian, and his native language was English. He was given his own establishment at the age of 18, and unlike his strict and religious father, threw himself until a lifestyle of heavy drinking mistresses on various escapades. He had expensive tastes and home decor, as you can see here to the right. When he turned 21, he was granted £60 thousand by Parliament. And the equivalent today is a byte seven million, three hundred and eighty five thighs. And he also received an annual income from his father of 50 thousand. In today's money, 6,000,154 thousand. He spent 31 thighs and on his stables alone. His father wanted him to be a bit more frugal and learn to manage money just a bit better. The king also disapproved of his sons association with radical politicians such as the wig Charles James Fox. At 21, he fell in love with a highly unsuitable Maria fits Herbert, who was a commoner, a widow, six years his senior and worst of all, and the view of his father, a Catholic. Remember that law that we mentioned before that sad the monarch couldn't marry a Catholic. That was the Act of Settlement 17 to one. By the way, he planned to marry her anyway. The royal marriages act, 1770 to forbid members of the royal family to marry without the permission of the sovereign. The couple of how to wedding on the 15th of December 1785, but it was legally void as the king had not given consent. Maria believed herself to be Georgia's true wife, though, considering the law of the church to supersede that of the state, the so-called marriage was kept secret and Maria agreed not to disclose it. The prince finds himself in debt unsurprisingly and his father refused to bail him out. He was forced to leave his residence Carlton heist, and move into Maria's home. In 1787, his political allies offered him a parliamentary grant. His relationship with Maria would have caused a national scandal and parliament would not have granted him the money. So the wake leader and a friend of the Prince Charles James Fox, declared that the rumors of the marriage where calumny Marina was hurt and angry and considered cutting off the prince. He asked another week, Richard friendly Sheridan, to reward foxes declaration less stridently. Parliament granted the prints a £161 thousand interface Monday, 20,000,916 thousand to pay his debts, and £60 thousand, which today would be about 7,000,795 thousand to renovate Carlton. Hi. Let's talk about the Regency crisis of 1788. George the Third's mental health deteriorated and the summer of 1788, he wrote Parliament from the 25th of September to the 20th of November. When Parliament reconvened, the king was to able to give the King's speech at the step opening of parliament. And according to the law, Parliament couldn't convene until the speech was delivered. So Parliament basically couldn't run, although technically unable to do so, Parliament began to debate regarding a regency. Charles James Fox felt that the Prince of Wales have the right to act as regions. Pet the younger disagreed. He argued it was the right of parliament to choose a reagent. He felt that without parliament's approval, the Prince of Wales had no more right to assume the government than any other individual subject to the country. Pit dead agree that the prince was the obvious choice is reagent though. The prince was offended by PET but didn't completely support foxes stumps. The Princess brother prints Fredrick Duke of York at Albany, gave his worth of George would not exercise par with the consent of Parliament. Pit outlined urgency plan which limited the parts of the reagent. He wouldn't be able to sell property belonging to the king or grandparents to anyone other than the king's children. The Princeton noised pits plans as a project for producing weakness, disorder, and insecurity and every branch of the administration of affairs. Compromise was eventually reach. A serious problem with the Regency boat was that parliament could not bid or boat on a battle until the King's Speech have been delivered. It could be delivered by the Lord's commissioners, but they could not be in part to act unless a document with the grid sale of the realm was presented, the CEO could not be a fixed without the authorization of the sovereign on George the Third wasn't enough fit state to give authorization. Pit on his ministers ordered the Lord Chancellor to fix the sale, but by the consent of the King, which was technically illegal. The statesman and philosopher Edmund Burke denotes this as a forgery, fraud at glaring falsehood. The Duke of York and all but they described the plant as unconstitutional and illegal. Others felt there was no choice if there was to be an effect of government. The King recovered before the rates and seat-belt could be introduced. He declared that the instruction to the Lord's commissioners was followed. Let's talk a bit about Georgia's marriage on his mistresses. George the Third refused to pay the princess debts. And as he married his cousin princess Carolina Brunswick, they were made on the 8th of April 1795 at the Chapel Royal to James's Palace. It was a disastrous marriage. They formally separated after the birth of their child, Princess Charlotte. And 1796, they remain permanently separated. With several periods of estrangement, the prince men tend his relationship with Marina fits. Herbert has many mistresses, included the actress Mary Robinson, who will be paid to give up her career. Chris Eliot, physicians ex-wife on France, has failures conscious of Jersey. In later life has mistresses included the March in Hartford and the March in S coming up. George had many reports with a legitimate children, but he didn't acknowledge any of them. His reputed some benefits. Herbert James 4D emigrated to the NSA. I'm McKenna Jesuits praised the naval officer Captain Harvey was reportedly his son by the songwriter lady and Lindsay. Other reported children included major George Seymour Crow, by the daughter of a theater manager, Elizabeth crew, William hoBshare by a pub owners daughter Sarah abroad, I'm Charles bot county. His mother was French. But as genealogists, anticodon has rejected reports that these men were sounds of George to the fourth. The Prince of Wales monetary accrue the utterly staggering debt of £630 thousand, which in today's money would be around 66,000,544 thousand. Most of us get into trouble with our banks that were a couple of 100 quid overdrawn. Parliament temporarily built him, right? He was given an extra 65 thousand per annum, which was around 6,000,866 thousand by today's recognize. The 1803 I farther 60 thousand or 5.6 million to us was added. His debts from 1795 were cleared by 1806, but the debts he had incurred since then still stood. In 1804, there was a dispute regarding the custody of Princess Charlotte, and she came into the care of the king. The Prince of Wales accused Princess Caroline of having a legitimate son, and parliament launched a public inquiry into her behavior, very humiliating for her. The investigation exonerated Carolina of the charge, but still found her conduct in discrete. Come to a period of George's life on in history generally known as the Regency. And it was a time when people were very concerned with fashion and style. You can see here regency fashion for gentlemen, urgency anterior and our residency exterior regency buildings and regency art, fashion and architecture and interior design still influences us today. After Princess familiar died at 1810, Georgia, the third is mental health irrevocably broke dawn. She had been his favorite daughter. Parliament agreed to follow the Regency plan of 1788. The letters patent were once again give them to the Lord's commissioners with the grid celll attached. The Lord's commissioners give royal assent to the Regency act it till 11. The Prince of Wales became known as Prince Regent. He took up the Regency on the fifth of February, it takes 11. He led us ministers manage government affairs and was less involved in the affairs of state than his father had been. Catholic emancipation remainder key issue. The Tories under Prime Minister Spencer principle opposed emancipation while it's the wig support a bit. At the beginning of his regency, George was expected to support the Whigs under Lord grandfather, but he did not immediately put them into office. His mother convinced him that the removal of the Tories would adversely impact his father's health and that his father might never recover. By 1812, it became obvious that the king was not going to recover this time, but the parenthesis TO did not appoint awake administration. He asked awakes to join the existing administration under parsable. They refused over the issue of Catholic emancipation. The prints reluctantly allowed parts of alter. A man as Prime Minister, personal was assassinated on the 11th of May 1812 by a merchant called John Bellingham. The Prince Regent plan to reappoint the existing ministry members under a new Later, he offered the position to Lord Wellesley, Then Lord Marta, but it was impossible to form an all-party administration went. Both parties refuse to work together. The Prince Regent than appointed the civil administration under Robert banks Jenkins, some secondary, I love Liverpool, known as Lord Liverpool. The tours for King to pursue war against Napoleon Bonaparte, the Boolean was defeated in 1814, and the subsequent call aggressive the ADA, however, was elevated from an electrode to a kingdom. Georgia therapy came King of however, rather than print selector, I've actually seen the chairs from the Congress of Vienna, which you can see at months dirt and county dine in Northern Ireland. And they're very interesting and the esteem with which each country was held as reflected in the chairs that they're represented those used. Napoleon was exiled but returned to power in 1815. He was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo by the Duke of Wellington, who was Lord Wellesley. His brother. George was concerned with matters of style and taste during the end of the Napoleonic Wars. Okay? This was the era of the invention of the Regency Style. Lord notch design terrorist has at regions part on Regent Street. I must spend a fair bit of my youth and Regent Street, you can see it pictured below. George liked the new idea of the seaside spot and commissioned the brightened Pavilion, the Indian Gothic palace designed by Nash. It was loosely based on the Taj Mahal and the Indian and Chinese and Terriers MIT at very fashionable. Now let's hear about the 10-year Ren of George the Fourth. George the Third died on the 29th of January 1820. The ban 50 seven-year-old George the fourth, excited, though with no real change to his part since he had been raging for nine years. By this time, he was famously a base and addicted to laudanum. His relationship with Caroline had farther deteriorated. They had lead separately since 1796 and both AT find other relationships. In 1814, Caroline left England for the continent, but she chose to return for George's car condition in order to be saved by the public as queen consort. George refuse to name her queen on bombed her from the correlation. He instructed british ambassadors to ensure she was not refer to as Queen of England and foreign courts. Her name was emitted from the Book of Common Prayer. George wanted a divorce, but his advisors felt that would lead to damaging revelations about his own love life. George requested a mid sure of the introduction of the unpopular pins and penalties bill, which would have allowed Parliament to impose legal penalties with ICT, a court of law that would have a large George to allow the marriage and strip Carolina at the type of Queen without going through an embarrassing court kiss. The bot was withdrawn due to its unpopularity with the public. George was crammed with Caroline and enforced abstention on the 19th of July, 1821 at Westminster Abbey. Thought day Caroline ALL. And she died on the seventh of August saying that she believed she had been poisoned. George's carnation was very extravagant, costing £243 thousand in today's money, around twenty two million, six hundred and thirty nine pounds. His father's carnage and had caused by ten thighs. And to put that in context, it was nonetheless a popular event. In 1821, George the Fourth became the first monarch to visit Ireland since Richard the second. The next year he went to Edinburgh for 120 daft days and hits words. His visit was organized by Sir Walter Scott and was the first time a reigning monarch had been to Scotland since the mid 17th century. Since those pesky Scott's tended to be poly with the Jacobite shield. Recall. Georgia 4th spent most of his later years secluded and Windsor Castle. He's still continued to intervene in politics though. He proposed a Catholic emancipation bill for Ireland and 1797, but Canvas against the Catholic Relief Bill of 1813 for Britain's like his father, he argued that he had sworn to uphold Protestantism and his carnation of Liverpool retired in 1827 and was replaced by the pro amounts of patient Tory George Kennan. George made a public declaration that has feelings on the matter of amounts of patient reflected those at his revered father. George the Third. Conservative Tories included the Duke of Wellington, did not like countings views on emancipation. Counting died that year on Lord God or Ecolab, the tenuous Tory wake coalition got Eric left office in 1828. I was replaced by Wellington, who had accepted that it was untenable to keep denying political rights to Catholics and perpetuity. Georgia is not in friendly terms with Wellington and wind him up by pretending to fault on Waterloo, disguised as a German general, Wellington finally obtain the king's consent to a Catholic relief bill on the 29th of January 1829, the ninth anniversary of the death of George the Third, who really wouldn't have been happy about such a Bill. George's brother, Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, and later king of Hanover, was fanatically anti-Catholic. Under pressure from his brother, the King withdrew his approval of the bill on the whole cabinet, resigned all mass and protests. On the 4th of March. The king was forced to agree to the bill. The ministry remains in power. Royal assent was given to the Catholic Relief Act on the 13th of April, 1829. The later years of Georgia, the fourth, by the late 18 twenties, George's heavy drinking and unhealthy lifestyle began to catch up with him. He had loved huge banquets with lots of alcohol, banks, arts since he was Prince of Wales. This made them the butt of jokes and public. By 1797, he weighed 17.5 Stone. His core set and 1824 was made for a 50 inch twist. He suffered from Geyte arteriosclerosis, which is thickening of the arteries, peripheral edema, which is fluid retention on possibly porphyria. And his later years he spent whole days in bed and had episodes of breathlessness that were severe. He increasingly withdrew from public affairs and public view despite his unfortunate condition. A core Terry wrote of George, more contemptible, cowardly, selfish, unfeeling dog does not exist. There have been good and wise kings, but not many of them. And this I believe to be one of the worst. By December 1828, George was almost blinded by counteracts and he couldn't sign documents due to the severity of Geyte which impacted his right arm. And 1829, the artists who David Wilkins reported that the king was in declining health and looked like a grid sausage stuffed into the covering. The king took laudanum for bladder pain, which left him and capacity for days and bad. He had surgery to remove a cataract in 1829 and needed to take a 100 drops of laudanum before state occasions. By the spring of 1830, it was clear that the king would not live much longer. He had to approve legislation with a stamp and the presence of witnesses and was confined to his bedroom. He NIH weighed 20 stone. Fluid retention impacted his breathing at night and doctors frequently drained excess fluid from his abdomen. Observers were astonished by his remarkable world to live despite all this. In April 1830, the Duke of Wellington wrote that the king had consumed for breakfast pigeon, beefsteak, pi, three parts of a bottle of bezel, a glass of dry shampoo pin, two glasses of ports on a glass of brandy, followed by a large dose of laudanum. George's physician, Sir Henry Alford, wrote to Maria Fritz, Herbert and Jane that His Majesty's constitution is a gigantic one and its elasticity under the most severe pressure exceeds what I have ever witnessed and 38 years experience. Halford was criticized by the medical fraternity for his treatment of George using opium and laudanum as sedatives. George dictated his will and may. He became developed in his final months, I'm confessed to an Archdeacon hoping Mercy would be shown to him, as he said, he had tried to show mercy to his subjects. He was unable to lie down and Jane and received the sacraments on the 14th of June. How offered only and formed the cabinet on the 24th of June that The King's cough continues with considerable expectation, but he privately told us why things are coming to a conclusion. I shall be released to fight Monday. George the Fourth died at 315 AM on the 26th of June, 1830. A postmortem revealed he died of gastrointestinal bleeding from the rupture of a blood vessel and his stomach. A large tumor the size of an orange, was attached to his bladder. His heart was enlarged and he had heavily calcified heart valves. He was buried in St. George's Chapel, Windsor on the 15th of July 1830. Princess Charlotte had died in May 1817. George was succeeded by his brother William, the fourth. 59. Gorgeous Georgians : If you've been checking on the lighter side section in the course notes, you probably know that I love Horrible Histories. Horrible Histories repair to the Georgians as the gorgeous Georgians. And this is because, well, maybe not all Georgians, but definitely wealthy ones, were very into style and fashion and sometimes above actual substance. And that was something that poets on Saturday nights at the time, really mid funnel. There's a very famous poem called The Rape of the Lock by Alexander Pope. It's about elliptical Belinda other in real life, it's based on an aristocrat called Arabella. Furthermore, what happened to her was that someone came along and cut off a piece of her hair and public. Now, in the modern day, that doesn't sound like a disaster, but in a Georgian era, this represented a lack of virtue. And it was actually worse to have your hair BMS than to actually be a bit of a moral mass and the poem is very much about that. Also, the most famous George and rider, possibly Jane Austin, broached the subject fairly often. So talking about the fashions of the Georgian era, you can see an example below. There were periods during the George and age where they did tone it down a bit, but they like to go big and they like to make a statement with their clothing. Here is an example of women's wear from the Georgian era. In 1758, a day dress was on so-called setback dress, setback because you're making your backside look enormous as you can see here, if a Georgia near the osteoid does, my bummed began this. The answer was off course, it does not have its very large. That's what they want to tear. Anyway, this dress actually developed from the undergarments of the 17th century. It was initially petty coats and underwear that actually became Andhra. It had a stiff course and thank heavens, we don't have to wear courses today. Bank can hopes to hold the skirts. So all the byte make it not whisked small that bump beg and the scarp just as big as you can get it. Neck lines were freely like this one here. Sometimes with the Muslim car chafe for modesty. And older women would've worn lower neck lines. The younger you are, the higher than ATC was going to be. Cuffs were freely like you can see here. Women also were runned Muslim caps. Formal wear, it would be richly broke headed or embroidered silks. By 1789, more simple commodified style that become fashionable, such as the first outfit that you can see here to the right. And there is an example of a kerchief. By the way, ladies day dresses were best on the rabbit, goat, or a gentleman's riding coach. You can see that the stress does look slightly like a coat. The West was short. It kind of empire line on pair line of your American that you see in period dramas is quite trade in this period. The waist, we're short on the bosom and hips where our product, because we want to be big everywhere we can be big. Large hots reward over lace curls, will cotton and linen, where the fashionable fabrics at that time, silks reward in the evening with small hopes because NIH larger hopes were only worn at court. So you have to be a railroad flight hours to craft, to get away with a big hoop. O to the Georgians had developed a fascination with a classical world. Again, the Rape of the Lock is based on the epic poetry of say, Virgil. Evening where for women was loosely based on the attire of classical statues. When they were actually wearing attire. The dresses were on course. Thank goodness for that. The Georgia and women must have felt. And fabrics and colors were kept light. Muslim was a fashionable fabrics. So you can see these dresses to the right slightly resembled the attire of a Roman Liddy day where I included a baldness skirt on petticoat, N1 pace, ladies accessorize with *****, gloves, Toslink gardens, sometimes feathered trend turbans for evening. Where what were the man wearing? Well, in 1778, gentlemen war tight fitting coats with carving tails, as you can see here. They were short waistcoats, which adds just below the waist and branches rather than tries, are those added just below the knee at this point in history and you have SOC socks underneath. They didn't wear ties or robots, but rather hot stiff colors such as you can see and the Green Knight fit to the left here. Man, more their own hair day today like say when they were at work, but a formal occasions they were powdered wigs and they were them very high as you can see in this picture. These were tied back with bows. Embroidery and trimming were only used on formal wear at this point in history. By 1805, there were famous male fashionistas to set an example for the man on the most famous was George known as Bo bromo, who you can see pictured here. He favorite dark, That's clothes over colorful styles. He were a cutaway coat with brass buttons, Ponzi loans, which were larger trousers than a bit more before on longer. So those were born with riding boats. So you don't get that sort of SOC, SOC below the knee thing from a bite this period. And he wear hats in writing, but it's, I don't know how comfortable your fate would have Baden Haslam. A hard conical riding hat might also be worn, provides for carefully laundered on starch at this really stiff pyruvate sitting right under your chin, but must have obviously being a little bit irritating. In the evening, Bravo wore a black coat on SOC Peninsula, as you can see pictured here to the far right. Makeup and international politics. What on earth I hear you say will make up with a serious business and the Georgian era, not what made her beauty of the Georgian era was someone with clear skin because a lot of people suffered from conditions like smallpox, which left your skin marked for life basically. And so that waxy makeup, but they're very famous for having used, was really to cover up blemishes on pockmarks on the skin. Unfortunately, it melted if you stop too close to the fire. So they then had to carry fans to keep killing it. Women's makeup was influenced by the French court where land is plastered their faces with white pins on their cheeks. They also darken their eyebrows, unused black beauty patches, and you can see a beauty patch applied. And the top picture here, cosmetics were the preserve of the aristocracy. To use them as a form of social elitism. Ed showed that you were very wealthy. English women went a bit lighter with the fist pins and the regime when the French court, the French actually thought them too modest. When Marie Antoinette of France decided to embrace a more naturalistic and the 1880s as pictured here, women who were older than her disapproved as Rose was actually a symbol of social position. Our Socratic women where not only encouraged to wear makeup, they were expected to wear makeup. In France during the revelation, a lot of rouge and large hots symbolize the excesses of the wealthy. Especially when the parent members of the population were starving at points in their spending money on these gigantic regs. And so it actually became dangerous to wear these items that was associated with the aristocracy. Ladies all over Europe, especially in England, followed the fashion set and France and England, though, makeup, hair and clothing also depicted a woman's social standing. Austin tension was dying, right? Encouraged if you have it, you were meant to float on Monday, not other assets. According to hair makeup artist for reading Iran, public spaces such as pleasure garden shops and assembly halls, where one way for women to show off their latest fashions per enrich mingled alike and this age of consumerism and ostentatious display. Now I used to live in bath, the pump rooms and bath pictured here to the right. We're one of the places where people went to say, I'm basing us where the parrot gardens, there are many such places still left in England. You basically just put on your best kits, spent several hours during your makeup. I went out to see who might spot you. The morning toilette Rachel became a public event. If anybody saw me brushing my teeth and putting all my makeup in the morning, I would bake completely mortified. This is something which an arch we recommend is a bit private unless you're one of those people but likes to put your makeup retain onto Tiktok or UGA. But if he tell you I didn't look died or not, you are helping others by showing them the way. But in the Georgian era it actually became an event. You have to even be invited. Rich women invited a select audience to watch them up. They're dressing tables to watch them getting ready in the morning. And a large mirror on cosmetic items would be displayed that adults into the retro of the Louvre where people would come over to watch you get out of bad. Well, they didn't have Netflix in those days. Personal servants, including a Linux med would take part. And the ritual, this retro is very much parodied. And the Rape of the Lock. Also, if you've ever seen the movie overlay layers on ********. When the contests as being almost like arms for battle by having her makeup and clothing put on. This is very true to the period, this public retro, it was initiated by fashion later, Marie-Antoinette, who wrote to her mother at 11 o'clock. I have my hair done at known all the world can address. I put on my rose, I'm washing my hands in front of the whole world. Then the gentleman leave and the ladies room in and I addressed in front of them. So people actually go to watch the queen washed her hands and put on our Rouge. In England, George and Livy's use butane to secure social prominence. Having a portrait painted was the Georgian equivalent to becoming an influencer in much the same Y as people advertise products and advertise their own brands. By using aesthetics and RH. They were doing that back in Georgia and times. Exhibitions such as the annual summer exhibition that the Royal Academy of Art, despite portraits of women from around 1768. And you didn't need to be born on aristocrat or born into an influential place in society. If you had the face and you could find the painter, you could become a socialite. Society gossip formed a key component of Georgia newspapers, which could be read for free and coffee houses I'm gossiping was a past-time and which most people and DOJ, women who were not born high rank and could ascend the social ladder by using beauty, portraits and gossip, all those elements to again, an advantageous marriage, perhaps financial support or patronage. Famous examples include kitschy fissure that he concentrate on Georgiana, Duchess of Devin chair, who was actually an ancestor of Princess Diana. Old with him are pictured here. Women across written emulated their styles. They were influencers on fashion leaders. Irish born Maria conscious of Coventry very sadly died aged only 27. She's actually killed by her makeup because it contained lead which poisoned her. The value of a woman was best in her appearance. Thoughts on ceramics when you sat that bunk late, but arguably that Estella factor and society in 1778, the amount of pleasure is pocketbook ranked ladies according to their beauty, elegance and Gris. They had women who were real intellectuals. I mentioned Jane Austin, but women were ranked according to their beauty, elegance, and Gris, you are expected to be accomplished. If you were an upper-class women, were expected to sing, play piano, do needlework, be able to paint watercolors. You were expected to have talents. You're expected to vary much work on your appearance, makeup as part of the cultural shift towards consumerism. Not that Britain's Empire minute at one of the richest countries in the world. Both affluent in PR areas were full of markets and shops. And so here is a picture of a Georgian time to the right. Cosmetics were imported from across Europe, but especially from France for the well today France walls, the country of fashion, mass produce replicas. In other words, knock-offs of expensive cosmetics were popular with less well-off women. During the Regency period, the French Revolution chant fashions and cosmetics as ostentatious makeup was associated with the French aristocracy, it was considered wasteful and the latest and heavy makeup became considered vulgar. Rouge was still warm book more likely. So this idea of the very fair skin with the red cheeks, it showed that you were wealthy if you have fair skin because you weren't out there like the working classes getting the sun and the fabled the mirror of grasses or the English ladies costume, first published in 1811, admonishes that good sense must so preside over its application that it's ten to the cheek may always be fainter than that nitrous pallet would have painted a violently raised women is one of the most disgusting objects to the eye. Remember that the next time you're putting the pressure on. I thought it was a core component of the lifestyles of many affluent women are not so affluent women as well. I had a burgeoning business. Satirist and poets such as Alexander Pope ridiculed the use of makeup. It was trying to hide your true self and their view. Parliament tried to add the trend of painting phases and 1770, comparing the use of makeup to witchcraft, all the women of whatsoever rank or degree that shall seduce or betray into matrimony of any of His Majesty subjects by the sense, pins, cosmetic, Walsh's artificial teeth, false hair, Spanish Wu, iron stays, hoop, high-heeled shoes, bolstered hip shall incur the penalty of the law enforce against witchcraft. I'm like demeanor, and that the marriage upon conviction shall stand mute and void. So your marriage can be declared void. If you refine to have hottest spot of rouge on, that would've meant that you could have been cast from society and completely destitute, is a bit harsh punishment for witchcraft in some cases could possibly be deaf. That was applied to those wearing makeup according to this law or it was meant to be. I don't know that it ever was. This didn't stop women from wearing makeup. 60. Nelson Part 1: As well as giving us powdered wigs, highs has built-in presence on four kings called George. The Georgian period gave us one of the United Kingdom's greatest national heroes. This gentleman, her ratio Nelson, also known as Admiral Nelson. Nelson, lord Nelson. Nelson other denial and Barnum Thorpe. He lived from the 29th of September 1750 it until the 21st of October 1805. And he was a British flag officer in the Royal Navy. He was an inspiring naval later who secured many British victory string, the French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, including the very famous Battle of Trafalgar, which we've mentioned earlier. He's widely regarded as one of the greatest naval commanders in history. His death at Trafalgar made him a national hero. What she can't help but notice, if you've ever been to Trafalgar Square on say, Nelson's Column. Nelson's column as a course erected and his memory, the early life of Horatio Nelson. He was born on the 29th of September 1758, I directory and Barnum Thorpe and Norfolk. He was the sixth of 11 children born to Reverend at Nelson and his wife Catherine suckling. He was named after his godfather, Horatio Walpole, who was first Arlo of Oxford. He was a Whig politician on the nephew of Robert Walpole, the first de facto Prime Minister of the UK. Nelson was raised with a strong Christian faith which he maintained through Ida's life. Though he didn't have a sort of stereotypical, quiet, reflective life of faith, as we will say. He attended past in grammar school and north walls them until the age of 12, and then went to King Edward the Sixth grammar skill and knowledge. Hey, began his naval career on the 1st of January 1771, age 12, reporting to HMS reasonably as an ordinary saving on COX-1. And he entered the service under his maternal uncle, a captain Morris suckling. He soon progress to become a midshipman, began officer training, unfortunately, and this is one of the strange facts of history Nelson suffered from, say, sickness through ITS life. Imagine that one of the greatest naval figures in history. And he's sick as soon as he goes to see the first place that he had a tooth was the West and days. And he spent time there between 17711780, suckling was transferred to the NOR best Guard ship, HMS triumph. Nelson joined the crew of the West Indies by Mary on, which belonged to the merchant shipping firm of Hibbert, Perrier and Horton. He sailed from Midway and Kent on the 25th of July, 1771, having to Jamaica and Tobago and returning to Plymouth on the 7th of July, 1772, he crossed the Atlantic twice, then took command of his uncles long boat, which carried manner dispatches to and from shore. He then heard of an expedition to the Arctic under Constantine FIPS to survey out actually nonexistent passage leading to MDR, the so-called Northeast Passage suckling. Arrange for Nelson to join the expedition as a COX-1 to command a lot wedge onboard the converted bomb vessel, HMS carcass. The expedition made it to ten degrees from the North Pole, but couldn't navigate the ice. And so turn back lock, which basically dined out on tails of Nelson after it became famous. And he told all kinds of tall tales. But Nelson on this voyage, putting it around that Nelson hutches to polar bear and later added to this anecdote, but Nelson came to chase the barrack to get at skin for his father. Nelson briefly returned to the triumph in September 1773, suckling hot him transferred to HMS seahorse, which was headed to the ace ten days. He departed on the 19th of November, 1773 and arrived at a British outpost on the dress of the 25th of May 1774. Nelson's vessels spent the next year escorting merchants and cruising off the coast. The first Anglo Morocco war broke out between the East India Company and the Indian marathon empire. And 1775, and sea horse was dispatched with a cargo of accompanies money to Bombay. On the 19th of February, two catches belonging to the Indian South in hydrology attack seahorse, which fought them off after the exchange of fire. And that was Nelson's first experience of battle. The next year was spent discord and comb voice. But Nelson was developing his skills and navigation and ship handling. In early 1776, he became seriously ill with malaria and he returned to England. It took six months for him to get home on board HMS dolphin. And by the time he returned, he had nearly recovered. He reached England and September 1776, suckling had become comptroller the Navy and 1775 quite a high office, and he used his position to promote his nephew. Nelson was made acting left-hand end of HMS WR, which was headed for Gibraltar. Wr sailed on the 3rd of December 1776. I'm returns in April 1777, nasa went to London and partners left-handers exam. He received his commission the next day, appointed to HMS low stuff, which was heading to Jamaica under Captain William locker. He sails on the 16th of May and returned on the 19th of July when the American War of Independence broke out, low staff took prizes and that meant captured enemy vessels for which the captain was given money. And this included the vessel called Little Lucy Nelson asked for command of as facile I'm Tucker onto cruises. All these cruises, Nelson mid notes about the wildlife He saw on the Caicos Islands and he became very interested in science. Locker was impressed by this and recommend a Nelson to the Commander in Chief and Jamaica. Sir Peter Parker. Parker assigned Nelson as a member of his crew aboard his flagship, HMS Bristol. The French entered the war on the side of the Americans and Parker's fleet took many prizes at the end of 1778, Nelson 1£400, which is about 52 thighs. And in today's money and prize money, Parker appointed him as Master and Commander of HMS badger on the 8th of December 1778. He spent most of 1779 cruising off the American coast that didn't intercept many enemy Prizes. During lab time, he returned to Port Royal in Jamaica. I'm Parker promoted him to post captain, giving him command of the 20th gum frigate, HMS hinge and Brooke, which had been captured from the French. Parker became aware of that Charles heck DO the comb destine was on route to Jamaica. He organized the fences on putting Nelson and command of Fort Charles covering the approaches to Kingston. But they expected envisioned never materialized. Nelson took command of the hinge and Brooke on the 1st of September. It sailed from Port Royal and the 5th of October, 1779, along with other British ships, captured several American prizes. Nelson return to Jamaica and December it where he experienced another attack of malaria. He stayed in the West Indies to participate in major John darlings attempts to capture the Spanish colonies and Central America, including an assault on a fortress on the San Juan River in Nicaragua. Hinge and Brooke accompany darlings and vision forced in February 1780. Nelson and his men, but Sage the fortress customer via WHO and it's 160 staff surrendered after two weeks, the British stayed at the fortress for six months, during which time many of them died of disease. They blew it up when they left, make sure it couldn't fall back into the hands of the anime. Parker recalled Nelson and gave him command or the 44 gun frigate, HMS jhanas. Nelson became very ill with what may have been disinterested and yellow fever. And 1780, that's happened in the jungle and Costa Rica and Elsa was taken to Kingston and Jamaica, where he was nursed by the rumored mistress of Captain William Cornwallis, Cuba Cornwallis, who ran a lodging highs and convalescent home for sailors. He returned to England in November on the HMS lion. And August, on the 15th of August, 1781, he was appointed to the frigate HMS Albemarle. It was during this time that Nelson's controversial contact with the institution of slavery took place. There's some evidence that while he was in the Caribbean, Nelson had made friends with plantation owners and he opposed the abolitionists and Parliament. Christopher Pat Lee from the University of Southampton says that the debate over the future of slavery divided Britain's Wilberforce personified one type of British patriotism, arguing for an end to slave trading on the basis that it was a blot on the reputation of a pride and Christian nation. Slave holders offered their own patriotic arguments, maintaining that the trade was so instrumental to the imperial economy that Britain could afford to stop it. Nelson have a friend, had several slaveholding colonists during his time in the Caribbean. Privately, he came to sympathize with our political light-like. It is clear that by the time of his death at Trafalgar, he despised Wilberforce and students, staunch opposition to the British abolitionists campaign. So all national heroes have their dark side would say, now says marriage actually two founding Nelson had made him a member of the so-called plantar secrecy because his wife came from that kind of background. We'll hear a little bit about that later. In a letter written in 1805, Nelson advise himself a colonialist, endeavors to serve the public wave of which the West India colonies form so prominent and interesting apart, I have ever been on shall die affirm friend to our present colonial system. I was Brad, as you know, and the good old skill on taught to appreciate the value of our West India possessions. That as a lateral, we know was actually written by Nelson. There are other words attributed to him that we're not so sure actually came from him, but this was written to his friends, Simon Taylor, who owned a sugar plantation in Jamaica, which relied on slave labor. Taylor asked Nelson to intervene in the public debate, and he apparently replied that whilst he had a tongue, he would launch his voice against the ******** incarcerate Doctorate of Wilberforce and his hypocritical allies. This letter was published in 1807 after Nelson staff to shore up the proof slavery cause before the vote on the abolition though, because after his death, Nelson was of course, monumental national hero. It's been observed that the wording is out of character for Nelson and that the signature seems like an obvious for Dre. Many letters written by Nelson survive and none of them express pro-slavery sentiments. The original letter, which this quote for his part, is not at the British Library as part of the bread port papers and shows that the published copy content 25. Alterations, escaped slaves boarding Nelson ships were signed on paid and regarded as crew members. They were discharged as free man at the end of their service. The bronze relief at the base of Nelson's Column clearly depicts the black George Ryan at the age of 23 with muskets shifting the French alongside the dying Admiral 1799, Nelson secured the release of 24 slaves held in Portuguese galleys of Palermo and Latino to when it was proposed that slaves on plantations in the end these be replaced by Chinese paid workers. Nelson supported the suggestion, and 1805 Nelson rescued the blackish and General Joseph criteria. His mission was to end slavery. He also rescued his servant from the French. Nelson recommend it to the Admiralty that they should be paid until they could be granted safe passage to Jamaica. Nelson had a high regard for his black household servant whom he called as good amount as ever lived. This was a guy named price. He wanted price to come and live with him and Larry Hamilton whenever he moved in with his lover, but price declined. We don't know why. Let's talk about Nelson's time on the Albemarle. Albemarle was refitted on Nelson, received orders to take her to say on the 23rd of October 1781, he was to collect on the score to a convoy of the Russia company, formerly known as the Muscogee company, which we talked about in our video about Elizabeth, the First at Eleanor. The forgets, HMS Argo and HMS Enterprise were also placed under his command. He successfully escorted the convoy but was caught in storms trying to return to port Albemarle was almost wrecked since she had been damaged in an accident previously, but nonetheless, she safely rich Portsmouth and February 1780 to the Admiralty ordered Nelson to fit Albemarle for say, then go to cork to score to convert a callback. And Canada, Nelson arrived off Newfoundland in May 1782, then went hunting American private tiers. And private tiers were privately owned sea vessels which had been commandeered for war. His success was limited though, and that he only retook, captured British ships and captured a number of small fishing boats. In August 1782, nelson had a narrow escape after a prolonged pursued by a French force commanded by Louis Phillipe div Audrey Nelson finally reach Quebec on the 18th of September. He then escorted a calm voice in New York where he reported to admiral Samuel hood. Now submit a request to join who'd split and Albemarle sales and hoods company to the west end days, British fleet took up position off to Mecca, a wedding to address force. Nelson was ordered to take Albemarle and Skype for signs of the elevate. But by early 1783, it was apparent that the French had alluded the British forces. At this time, Nelson forms a plan to attack the French garrison best at the Turks islands. Hey, come on to the flotilla of forgets and smaller vessels, launching a force of 167 men early in the morning of the 8th of March, undercover of a supporting bombardment. Nelson cold off the assault after several hours. He was criticized by several of the officers involved in the attack, but Hood seems not to have reprimanded him too severely. Night one thing that Admiral Nelson, as he later became, was known for it with disobeying orders, which is not generally considered to be a great character traits if you serve the Armed Forces. Nelson Cruz, the Western days for the rest of the war, capturing a number of French and Spanish prizes when piece was declared Nelson return to Britain and lit Jane 1783. Let's talk a little bit about Nelson's marriage. Nelson stead with acquaintances and sono mare and France and lit 1783, hoping to learn French. He returned to England in January 1784 and attended court as part of Lord hoods entourage. He wanted to become an MP and support Pitt the younger, but he was unable to find a seat. In 1784, he was given command of HMS borealis and assigned to enforce the Navigation Acts or rod on taiga. Not the acts were very unpopular and the Americas and end the colonies Navigation Acts were asked that created sort of triangular transportation of slaves and slave produced goods throughout the British Empire. And goods had to be transported via England. They came from elsewhere in the British Empire, and only English ships could transport the goods. So they were very unpopular. Nelson's interpretation that the differed from that of his commanding officer though. So Robert Hughes, with whom he often found himself and conflict. Nelson was actually sued for illegal seizure by the captains of the American vessels that he had captured March and some of the nearby island and never supported the American claims. And Nelson appear to be facing imprisonment. He was sequestered and Boreas for eight months until the courts exonerated him. During this time, he came into contact with a young widow from a never space plantation family called Francis notice funny. Nisbett. Nelson fell for her and her uncle John Harvard offered him a substantial Dari, Herbert and Nisbett hid the fact that they were in fact completely broke with the appearance of wealth. Finally, did not disclose that she was in fertile after a uterine infection either. Herbert finally offered Nelson only a fraction of the Dari he had originally promised. In the Georgian era, breaking and engagement, it was viewed as completely dishonorable. Nelson Anthony were married at the Montpellier posted on the island of Naxos on the 11th of March, 1787. 61. Nelson Part 2: Nelson return to England and July with Fannie. Following letter, Nelson kept command of Borius until she was paid off in November 1787. He and finally divided their time between bath and London with occasional visits to Nelson family and Norfolk. In 1788, they moved to Nelson's childhood home of Barnum Thorpe, not in reserve and on half pay, Nelson lobbied the Admiralty for a command. It was peacetime and the Navy was not running many ships, so he was unsuccessful. Also, his association with the Navigation Acts haven't done them any favors and who did not intercede on his behalf. He remained unemployed for five years, aware of a prejudice at the Admiralty, evidently against me, which I can neither gesagt nor on the lease account for, but which may have been connected with his enforcement of the Navigation Act. Nelson try to secure employment for his former crew members. He was always very considerate of those who served under him on with him and as a later was very popular with his man. In 1792, the French revolutionary government on x, the Austrian Netherlands and Belgium, which had traditionally been a buffer state. The Admiralty recall Nelson and he was given command of HMS Agamemnon. And January 1793, France declared war on the 1st of February. Now let's talk about Nelson's Mediterranean service when he starts to show his real genius as a naval commander in May 1793, Nelson sealed under Vice Admiral William hot arms command, joined later that month by Lord hoods fleet. The forest first habitude to browser and then two lone aiming to establish Britain's naval superiority in the Mediterranean. 2-norm was controlled by moderate French Republicans on loyalists, but was under threat by the forces of the National Convention, the French revolutionary parliament. The city was running out of supplies and unable to defend itself. So authorities requested that it be taken under hoods protection, who'd agreed and South Nelson to carry dispatches to Sardinia and Naples to request reinforcements. Agamemnon arrived in Naples in early September. Nelson met King Ferdinand the fourth of nipples on the British Ambassador, William Hamilton. He was introduced to William Hamilton's new wife, Emma, the infamous Larry Hamilton, who had formerly been the mistress of Hamilton's nephew, the politician Charles gravel. The negotiations were successful and 300 men on several ships were gathered. By mid-September, Nelson put to say in pursuit of a French frigate, but at a later time, he sailed for leg or an arm band Corsica. When he arrived back into law on the 5th of October, it was being bombarded by the French Army which had occupied the hills surrounding the set I heard still hope to fight off the French if reinforcements arrived in time and set Nelson to join a squadron operating off carry. The notorious events of Corsica. Agamemnon sided five sales early in the morning of the 22nd of October, 1793, they turned out to be a French squadron. Nelson gave chairs firing from the 40 gallon melpomene a. He inflicted a lot of damage, but other friendships turn to join the battle. Nasa was numbered and so withdrew. He continued on his voyage to carry arriving on the 24th of October, Agamemnon was repaired and set sail on the 26th of October for tunas with a Squadron commanded by Commodore Robert Lindsey. When he arrived, Nelson was given command of a small squadron consisting of Agamemnon. Three forgets the slave in order to blockade the French garrison on Corsica to landfill and lit December 1793, badly impacting the British fight and the Mediterranean. Hoods withdrawal arrangements were insufficient. It team friendships of the line, those were ships that were designed for battle were seized by Republicans. The British needed Corsica to provide a naval base near the French coast. So Nelson's mission wasn't important. One that was very strategic. Who'd sent Nelson extra ships? And January 1794, i British assault force arrived on Corsica on the seventh of February and Nelson move to reinforce the blockade of past year and the East of Corsica. That monthly carried out reds and intercepted animate ships by lip February sound fewer and so fell at British troops arrived at Ostia commanded by Lieutenant General David Dunn. Does, he felt that the French were too well entrenched to risk and attack. Nelson persuaded, heard otherwise and there was a prolonged dispute between navy and army leaders. Nelson didn't receive permission to proceed until March. He then began to land guns from ships and place them on the hills surrounding by Ostia. The British squadron open fire and the harbor on the 11th of April, this lesson took command of the land forces on started a bombardment. The town surrounded after 45 days. Nelson and left-handed General Charles shirt then plants and attack on Calvin. British forces landed a caliphate on the 19th of June, 1794, I move their guns to the hills surrounding the time, Nelson kept up a sustained bombardment whilst shirt advanced with his man. On the 12th of July, Nelson was struck in the right eye by debris when a sand bag was hit, his wind C minor, and it was bondage, then he returned to action. By the 18th of July, most of the enemy positions have been disabled. And so stewart a. Nelson's storm demand defensive position on captured it under constant British bombardment. Qaddafi surrounded on the 10th of August. Nelson permanently lost much of the site and his right eye. You'll remember that Nelson is often depicted wearing an eye patch. In his words, he was only able to distinguish light from dark button no object. Genoa and the fight of the era after the events in Corsica, hood order Nelson to initiate diplomatic relations with Genoa are potentially crucial strategic ally. Soon afterwards, who'd returned to England, was succeeded by Admiral William bottom as Commander-in-Chief in the Mediterranean. Nelson rested like Horn while Agamemnon was repaired and had an affair with a local woman, Adele Cornelia hot, and arrived in December and the rest of the fleet, Kim with him and Nelson sailed on several cruises with them and let 1794 and early 1795, on the 8th of March, hot and learned that the French plate was headed for Corsica. He said I'd intercept them and Nelson joined the fleet. The two fleets shattered each other on the 12th of March without actually breaking ICT and to fight and the next day to friendships collided, giving Nelson the chance to engage the much larger AT for gun saw ERA. Era, loosely translated means it will be fine. After 2.5 hours, Nelson was forced by the two friendships to veer away after having sustained heavy casualties on a lot of damage. The fleets continue to shadow each other until the Battle of Genoa broke out on the 14th of March, Nelson joined the other British ships at a talking the buttered side era. I undertook from so-and-so, the friendships surrendered by the damaged on Nelson say sensor. The French abandoned the plan to embed Corsica and returned to port. John Jarvis replaced autumn and Nelson find him more inspiring as a later, Jarvis was 60 years old on a seasons naval officer who regarded Nelson as more on Associate than a subordinate officer. He recognized Nelson's gifts as a naval commander. The French had made considerable gains on lands to the British had abandoned their Mediterranean basis and retreated to Gibraltar and the teargas. Now let's talk about the very famous battles of Saint Vincent and the Battle of the Nile. Nelson met with Java's on the 13th of February, 1797 and the Atlantic off kits and Vincent and all the 14th of February finds himself sailing through missed, surrounded by a fleet of 27 Spanish ships. The Spanish sailed into divisions on Jarvis plan to cut them off from each other and destroy one before it could add the other. He had miscalculated though, and it was becoming clear that the British ships could, would not be able to turn quickly enough to get clear of the Spanish before their squadrons closed-end. Nelson attack the head of the second spanish division with ICT orders. The rest of Java says fleet slowly turns and came to his head. That's unheld. The Spanish quadrants apart at 1 fighting seven Animate ships, he boarded and captured an enemy man of war that board and another from her deck and captured it. This spot will warm Jarvis, the Oldham of some fences and Nelson received a knighthood for it. He was also promoted to rare Admiral. His first action as Rear Admiral was a disaster whilst they're ten or a grip shocked, shattered his left elbow and his right arm. How to be amputated on board his flagship. He recovered well enough to join Jarvis and the spring of 1798, I was assigned to watch a French fleet preparing to the spot and expeditionary force. Nelson's flagship, the bomb guard, was hit by a strong northeasterly Gail, which blew his squadron off course from its crews near San Vincent. The French were headed to Egypt and were carried quite far in that direction by the storm, the British pursued them with Nelson believing they were headed either to Egypt or to Sicily. The British caught up with the French and the harbor at Alexandria on the 1st of August 1798, the Harvard was crowded with empty French transports, while the French 13 ships squadron was anchored in a defensive line across OBC Hair Bay near the minds of the Nile. Nelson attack the French ships which were mobilized to the British were able to file before moving on to the next ship. The squadron was completely destroyed by the morning of August the second, it was a major strategic victory. Nelson took no time and spread the news throughout the Mediterranean and making sure it reached London. Nelson was made baron of the Nile and Barnum Thorpe and recognition of his victory at the Battle of the Nile. Now let's talk about by the well-known love affair between Lord Nelson and Lady Hamilton. Lady Hamilton arranged a hero's welcome for Nelson up nipples for the ships were sent for repairs. King Ferdinand had only tenuous military strength. It prolonged British naval presence was welcome and adding to resist the French who had already captured Rome and deposed the Pope. King Ferdinand joined the Alliance of Great Britain, Russia, and Austria against the French and lead insufficient troops to recapture Roman. Fortunately, this was a failure on the French, drove him back to nipples, which then felt the French. Nelson was called upon to evacuate the Neapolitan royal family to Sicily. And when they reach Palermo, he had completely fallen in love with AMA Hamilton, one of his companions on that voyage. The summer of 1799, Nelson squadron and Ferdinand recaptured nipples. But Nelson's preoccupation with Lady Hamilton displays the Admiralty. Bonaparte had a skip from Egypt to France. The French held Malta on Lord kth Jarvis replacement as commander in chief of the Navy, believed that the French would next try to seize Minorca. Nelson was ordered to take all available ships to Minorca, but refused on the grinds and he felt nipples was still under threat. Again, if you're in the armed forces, refusing to obey orders is not something as generally accepted as part of the behavior in that job. He was proven right, but it was unacceptable to disobey orders. The Admiralty was also marked by his acceptance of the victim of bronchi and systole from King Ferdinand and he was sent home. He traveled across the continent with the Hamilton's. He received a hero's welcome in England and his journey to London appeared very like a triumphal procession. He was promoted to vice odd roll and January 1801, AMA Hamilton by this time was pregnant with his child. It was appointed a second and come on to the edge of Admiral Sir Hyde Parker and went on an expedition in the Baltic shortly before he sailed, his daughter Horatii was born. Parker's Fleet sail for Copenhagen and early at one, Nelson was not asked for advice or opinions until it became clear they would meet with Danish resistance, leaving him to remark, NIH, we are sure of fighting. I am sent for Nelson bypass the shore batteries covering the North and approaches to Copenhagen. You're using a difficult channel and let us quadrant into action. On the second of April, anti-node one, Parkour felt Nelson was suffering unacceptable losses and gave the signal to disengage button, Nelson disregarded the signal and won the battle after on our Danish casualties numbered 6 thousand dead or winded, while the British total came to the thighs and Zara poll of Russia died shortly afterwards and there was no need for further action in the region. Nelson was made on vi count. The Admiralty gave him a command due to his popular status rather than punishing his insubordination. If he hadn't well, not battle and things would not have gone well for him in the Navy. Basically, he pounded ambitious attack on Boolean to stop a possible French and vision. He did not personally participated in this operation and it was a total disaster. A second attempt was abandoned when paste negotiations with fronts opened and the Treaty of Omnia was sides and 1802, I'm a hip-hop Martin place on Nelson's instructions and elegant country highest for their family, it became what for Taniqua calls an inexpensive mirror for their vanities. Lord Hamilton had given into the inevitability of his wife's affair with Nelson, died with both Liddy Hamilton Or Nelson out his side and early 1803. There are varying accounts of high funny Nelson was treated by Horatio Nelson, nelson supply term with half as income for a time. But when she tried to reconcile with him, he returned to our lateral with a note saying opened an error by Lord Nelson. I'm not RAD, which seemed quite cold and really slightly crew. Now becomes the most famous of Nelson's battles on his final battle, the Battle of Trafalgar. Nelson was given command of the victory and May 1803, along with commands and the Mediterranean. Two days later, war with Napoleonic France broke. His instructions were to once again blockade too long span also declared war on Britain. A Nelson's rule was to try and stop the French and Spanish forces from converging and forming a force large enough to invade England. Napoleon had been created emperor in 1805, had ordered the fleets to converge for that purpose. The plan was that the French and Spanish squadrons would burst through the blockhead dash to the West Indies to Ravich British colonies and destroy its trade. And then cross the Atlantic and a single fleet to annihilate the British near as shocked an island of Britain name. They were then to take control of the English Channel, which would be traversed by an army of 350 thousand men. There was total panic and England at the thought of this invasion, the French naval commander was abnormal PR view live. In March, he broke out into long shielded by bad weather and vanished. Nelson set off in pursuit. You'll notice fleet was intercepted on damaged by a British Squadron. He failed to recapture the English Channel and fled to Canada. Is Nelson put into Gibraltar, made preparations for the blockade of cadenzas and returned to England. He was at home for 25 days. And while he was there, he planted strategy for the inevitable confrontation with the French and Spanish. Apro Cuthbert calling modes, had blockaded 34 enemy ships at codas. Napoleon had abandoned his invasion plans and redeployed as ground army. But in Britain there were still Rail Fares of an advantage on the country. Appendix hopes on Nelson. Remember we talked about how George the Third initiated at 27 thousand trips and Hyde Park. That was because of this particular invasion scare. Nelson set sail on the victory, his famous flagship on the 25th of September. Nelson was beloved by his captains and sailors, and he felt that they understood his tactics. We wouldn't have to spend long periods of time explaining the pods. He celebrated his 47th birthday with 15 captain support his flagship, and outlined his plans for a pell-mell battle, which the British would take the offensive and art gum their enemies. He plan to advance in the French and Spanish fleets and two divisions to break their line and destroy them gradually, vessel by vessel. This was a complete abandonment of traditional naval strategy. It was really thinking outside the box. We'll nerve was ordered by Napoleon to break the blockade and sailed out. If cadets on the 20th of October, 1805, the two sides met at Trafalgar. The British divisions were led by Nelson and calling word as the opposing fleets closed, Nelson gave his much quoted admonition. England expects that every man will do his duty. The fiercest fighting occurred around the victory. A French sniper on the mass of the rate of tablets shop Nelson through the shoulder and chest. He was carried blue deck to the sergeant, but it was clear that he was dying. He was told that 15 enemy ships have been taken and replied that as well. But I had bargained for 20 Nelson's flag captain, the captain of his flagship, Thomas Hardy, kissed his forehead and Nelson spoke his last words. Now, I am satisfied, thank God, I have done my jj. Although Britain was Nicea from invasion, the nation went into mourning for Nelson. His tomb at some Paul's Cathedral is more majestic that many royal tombs. The victory is preserved at Portsmouth. I'ma Hamilton on her Ayesha were ignored in the public proceedings. They were not acknowledged. Ama died practically destitute and Kali, nine years later, her ratio married or Norfolk clergyman and became the military arc of a large and stable family. After Nelson staff found eight naive icon test, Nelson was awarded a generous pension and lived in x Smith until she died in 1831. Nelson is still regarded as a British national hero. 62. The British Empire : Now we're going to talk about the subject we really can't avoid, and that is the British Empire. At 1. It used to be said that the sun never set on the British Empire. It covered a quarter of the globe at 1.3 of the globe. At another point, it lasted for a byte, 300 years as well. So I have thought of trying to look at what life was like for people living in the British Empire. But it took in so much of the world and so many different cultures on lasted for three centuries that it was really quite difficult to do that we're gonna talk about the growth of the empire though and its eventual decline. Know, we still live with the aftermath of empire and colonialism today. And if you could keep remarks and the Q&A respectful, bearing that in mind, there were some benefits of the empire in terms of infrastructure. But I think it's not controversial to say at left and incredible mass behind it. The beginning of the British Empire, britain first established overseas colonies in the 16th century and the 17th century. It established colonies in North America and the West Indies due to its position as a maritime par and because of competition with France. By 1670, there were British American colonies in New England, Virginia, and Maryland and settlements and the bermuda has Honduras, anti-gay, Barbados and Nova Scotia. Jamaica was acquired by conquest and 1655. From the 1880s, the Hudson's Bay Company was established and water is nine Northwestern Canada. The East India Company contributed significantly to the growth of British colonialism. It began trading and 1600s and its activities made the street settlements part of England's territories. And those were punning Singapore, Malacca, and globulin. Such gems is Ireland and the Gambia River became the first permanent English settlement and Africa. And 1661. Here we see a map of the British Empire in 1776. I'm sorry, I couldn't get it a bit clearer than this. This is the period that we've been talking about in this section of the course. And this is really when the empire started to really expand. The slave trade was initiated by the British in Sierra Leone, but it didn't become a British territory until 17871806, britain acquired the Cape of Good Hope and what is nice South Africa. The expansion of colonial territory is mostly kinda like through the actions of commercial enterprises such as the East India Company, rather than by the efforts of the crime. The crime dead impose appointees and maintain overall supervision. Though The British Empire accordingly came together over time. So say you were a Roman emperor or a marauding Viking, just going right and adding lounge to your own mega bit of a code do to your people. By the time of the British Empire, there had to be some kind of justification for walking and taking over other people's countries that tended to be along the lines of, Oh, we're helping these people where civilizing them. It took time for Britain to acquire all the territory's that it did. Crime control. And the 17th and 18th centuries was mainly concerned with tread and shipping. The colonies were seen as providing necessary goods for Britain with monopolies granted for trade and commodities such as tobacco and sugar. The Navigation Act, the Navigation Acts 1651 on subsequent legislation, setup a closed economy between Britain and its territories. Colonial exports could only be transported on British ships to the British markets, and colonial imports have to come via England. This system remains in place until the Scottish economist Adam Smith published his influential Wealth of Nations in 1776. And also the loss of the American colonies impact of the system. In the first half of the 19th century, the free trade movement in Britain slowly brought a bite. The systems decline. Slavery. Now we've talked about that before. The slave trade was an essential component of the empire's economy, especially in the Caribbean and the Southern States of what would become the United States of America. The slave trade was abolished in 1807, and slavery itself was abolished in 1833. Under naval and military officers such as Robert Clive, known as climb of India, James Wolfe out air coat. Britain acquired the two most important reagents and its empire, which were India and Canada. Competition with France was k and establishing the British Empire. The first half of the 18th century, there was conflict between England and France over North America. The seven years war between Britain and France slip Britain the dominant power in the region after the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1763. In America, the Seven Years War is referred to as the French and Indian War. The French company designed confronted the British East India Company in India, but Robert Clive secured military victories against the French and the rulers of Ben Gaul exceeded large territories to Britain. In the 1850s. Britain lost its American colonies in 1776 to 83, but acquired settlements in Australia and upper Canada, NIH, Ontario. Which became populated with loyalists from the NIH USA. The Treaty of alveoli, which ended the Napoleonic Wars and Latino to add a Trinidad and salon, nice Srilanka to Britain's territory's. Breton acquired Tobago, Americious, St. Lucia, and Malta, which were seated by France and the Treaty of Paris in 1814. And that was the treaty that lead to Napoleon's exile. Of course. Stamford Raffles added Singapore in 1819. British influence extended to the Pacific with the addition of Canadian territories and Alberta, Manitoba, and British Columbia. Further conquest of India included the United Provinces of Agra and odd, the central provinces, east bank, gal, and ASAM. The Empire came to its height in the 19th century. The administration of the empire, it became much more sophisticated and coherence at that time under individuals such as Joseph Chamberlain, who led the colonial offers from 1895 to 1900. The office began as an offshoot of the home office and the Board of Trade, but became a separate office by the 18 fifties. It exerted pressure, a discipline over colonial governments. New Zealand entered the Empire and was colonized after IT team for today. Partly owing to pressure from missionaries, British took control and Fiji, Tonga, Papua out other islands in the Pacific Ocean. The British High Commission for the Western Pacific Islands was created in 1877. Britain continue to acquire territory and India, such as the Punjab at 1840 and Balochistan from 1850 to 1876, following the Indian mutiny and 1857, which was a widespread but unsuccessful rebellion, the British crown took over the East India Companies governing rule in India. In 1886, britain acquired Burma, Myanmar. The French completed the Suez Canal in 1869, which gave Britain a shorter say route to India. Britain used the opportunity that's provided by expanding its port of a1 and creating a protectorate and Somaliland, nice Somalia. It established its part towards the shake terms of Southern Arabia and the Persian Gulf, Cyprus became a link and its communication with India or the Far East. The Empire extended to the street settlement on the federated malaise deaths. In the 1800s, Brunei and Sarawak Kermit protectorates. Hong Kong became British at 1841 and Britain operated on informal empire and China by way of treaty ports and trading and the city of Shanghai, the greatest extension of British power in the 19th century was an Africa. Britain ruled Egypt for the 1882 and the Sudan from 1899, the rural Niger company extended Britain's part into Nigeria. The Gold Coast in Ghana. The Gambia also came under British control, the imperial British East Africa. The company operated in Kenya and Uganda. The British South African company operated in Southern Rhodesia, Zimbabwe, Northern Rhodesia, nice, Zambia, and Malawi. Britain was victorious in the South African War from 1899 to 1902. And Amex, the trans file on the orange braced it, creating the Union of South Africa in 1910. Britain know, I wrote a quarter of the world's land mass and a quarter of its population. In 1839, Lord dirname recommended limited self-government and Canada, a cabinet of ministers chosen by the Canadians would exercise executive pars instead of officials chosen by the British government. Canada would have its own legislative assembly, in other words, its own parliament. The British governor general would still be in charge of government affairs and defense acting on orders from London. This system of local administration under a mother country spread and the Victorian era, in 1847, it was applied to Canada than later Australia, New Zealand, and the Cape Colony, Natal, and Southern Africa. In 1907, these states became dominions and recognition of their control over their own affairs. At dominion was not quite like just a colony of how to start in level of freedom to governance self. In 1910, the Union of South Africa became a dominion. Dominions achieved special status after World War II, britain had declared war on Germany in 1914 than the nib of its entire empire. But in 1918, the Dominions signed peace treaties, other own behalves on joined the League of Nations as independent states of equal status to Britain. The 1980's Statute of Westminster recognize them as independent countries within the British Empire equivalent status to Great Britain. The statute referred to a Commonwealth of Nations in 1939 when the Second World War broke out, the Dominions mid their own declarations of war. The rest of the British territories were not declared independence. And Africa, many native Africans were segregated into so-called reserves. Nationalist phalanx spread and Maddie areas of the empire after the First World War, India achieved independence in 1947, after the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, pictured here to the right, other states followed. They were offered the option of an ongoing relationship with Britain and other former colonies in the Commonwealth of Nations. The term British was not used after 1946. India and Pakistani independence was followed by salon or Sri Lanka and Burma, Myanmar and 1948. The Gold Coast good and dependence as Ghana in 1957. After 1960, pressure from the United Nations and other international bodies contributed to the spread of independence amongst the former colonies. The British public became less imperial and its height like and actually today I think the legacy of colonialism causes a certain amount of embarrassment in Britain. Hong Kong was returned to China in 1997. The empire was then a thing of the past. The Commonwealth though still and Jerry's, it's at the moment under the leadership of Queen Elizabeth the second, but the British Monarch is not automatically made head of the Commonwealth. She just happens to be considered a good person to have that job herself. Barbados became a parliamentary republic on the 30th of November 2021. Queen Elizabeth the Second was replaced as head of state by President Sandra Mason, pictured here to the right. And other former British colonies looks at to replace the queen as head of state. As I record this video. 63. Princess Charlotte: I don't know if you're old enough to remember the death of Diana, Princess of Wales and the huge public response to it that had actually happened before in history when this lady died, Princess Charlotte, she would have been queen. We wouldn't have had to Queen Victoria had she lived. But very sadly, she died at the age of 21. And she was the daughter of George the Fourth, who was Prince Regent at the time that she died. We've heard in a previous video about HIV, the Georgians really loved celebrity gossip. And much like today, the royal family provided that celebrity gossip and a quite regular basis. So people almost felt like they knew Princess Charlotte and her death had far-reaching impact is where a bite to find light. Charlotte Augusta, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was her formal title. And she lived from the seventh of January, 1796 until the 6th of November, it takes 17. She was the only child to George the Fourth on Carolina friends back home, as we know, couldn't stand each other. She would have become queen, hace outlived her grandfather and father, but she prayed to cease them dying at the age of 21. Charlotte's parents hated each other. It was basically loathing at first sight when they first mapped and they separated soon after her birth. Her care was left a governances on servants, and she really had not a huge amount of contact with her parents during her childhood. George allied Caroline only limited access to their adult her, and she eventually left England. Like her father and grandfather before her, Charlotte had some disputes with her dad. Charlotte's father wanted her to marry William, hereditary Prince of Orange, which was the cause of this particular dispute. Shi a grade at first, but she really didn't want to do it and broke the engagement. A battle of wills and search between Charlotte and her father. She eventually and George permitted her to marry Leopold of sexy Kohlberg cell field, who later became King of the Belgians. The marriage was happy, but sadly, after only a year, Charlotte died following the birth of a stillborn sudden death triggered a period of national mourning. She had been a really popular figure in contrast to her unpopular father and her mentally ill grandfather, Princess Charlotte was almost ST as the hope for the future of the royal family on for Britain. Because her grandfather was unable to rule because he was mentally unwell onto her father was known for well, basically draining the public parks and spending a lot of money and also for his ill-treatment of his family. He was thought of as well. I can't use the word, but it rhymes with Phil and it means roughly the same thing. Whereas everybody liked Princess Charlotte. She was a big personality. She was very tomboy as she tended to be a little bit socially and appropriate. People just really warm to her. The succession was insecure after her death as George the Third sounds were older and unmarried. And so it was kind of an irony. And the George the Third on Queen Charlotte had 15 children, but yet Charlotte ended up there only legitimate grandchild. So despite this huge family, if there are no errors, they started looking for wives after Charlotte staff on George's fourth son, Prince Edward Jacob Canton strength. Learn how to daughter Anne and Alexandra Nina, who became known to history as Queen Victoria. She became one of Britain's longest reigning monarchs until she was piped at the posts by our current Elizabeth the second. Let's hear a little bit about Charlotte's birth on childhood. Charlotte's parents marriage had been pretty much a total disaster, as we've heard, it was loathing at first sight. George only married Caroline because his father George the third promise, declare his massive debts of a dead. So they separated within wakes, but they lived in the same residence. Charlotte was born nine months after their wedding on the seventh of January, 1796 up Carlton highs and London, the residents of her father, her father was disinterested. He had wanted a boy, just was sort of mildly disappointed she had been a boy and that was his response to her birth. Her grandfather though, loved female offspring. He adored his daughters and he had a ground daughter, and he was utterly delighted when Charlotte was born. He also hoped that the baby would bring the strands royal couple together. Three days after Charlotte's birth, George wrote to well, directing that Caroline have no part in raising the princess and leaving all his goods to his Mistress, Maria fits Herbert, he left Caroline one shilling. Know the baby did not bring this capital to gather. Unfortunately, the royal family was not popular with the public at that point, but there were celebrations over the birth of a new princess. The 11th of February, Charlotte was christened. She was named Charlotte Augusta after her grandmother's Queen Charlotte on Augusta, Duchess of Brunswick Lindeberg. Her godparents where George the Third and Queen Charlotte and Augusta at Augusta was represented by a proxy at the ceremony. George restricted Caroline's contact with her daughter. She was forbidden to see her unless a nurse or a governance was present. She was permitted the customer daily visit to her child, which was common for hours theocratic parents to sort of have an interview with their child once a day, but she was not allowed to make any decisions regarding Charlotte. Household staff felt the prince was behaving properly analyzed. The Princess of Wales to be alone with her daughter. George remained unaware of this as he had little contact with his daughter himself. Caroline went ident a carriage with Charlotte and cried, actually uploaded to see them together. And obviously the regents, as he would become, was unaware that this was happening. The writer, the're home sat of Charlotte's childhood. The impression won't get from all the early recorded stories of Charlotte is of a hobby, recklessness, and a warm heart. She was a lovely little girl basically, and everyone who had contact with her really liked her. George and Caroline continued to fight on. Charlotte was used as a cast as ballet between them, with both appealing to the king and queen. In August 1797, Caroline left Carlton has a move to black cave, leaving Charlotte behind. English law, considered a father's rights to super-state of mothers rights. And so she presumably had no choice and leaving her daughter behind. George did not place any further restrictions on Caroline's access to Charlotte, which people have thought he might have done. Georgia and Vita Caroline to spend the winter as 1798 at Carleton has, but she refused. Carolina occasionally visited at Carleton heights and Charlotte was allowed to go to black haze to see her mother, but she wasn't allowed to stay at her mother's highest one. Charlotte was at George wanted to setup a home with Maria if it's Harvard, his mistress. When he moved Charlotte ICT to nearby war at Charlotte, so company was her household stuff. So she was only accompanied by people who were paid to look after her rather than having sort of beloved family around her. Charlotte's beloved governance lady elegant was forced to retire. This was attributed to her edge, but George was actually angry that she had taken Charlotte to see the king with light has permission. George also dismissed Ms. Hayman Charlotte's cheat or for becoming too friendly with his Dalton. And then Caroline promptly higher tire. Charlotte was not an exuberant tomboy and her new governments lady the Clifford was very fond of her and wasn't very strict with her, but kind of A-Z with her lady to clifford supply to climate for Charlotte and her grandson, the Honorable George capital. He was three years younger than Charlotte, so she had this little boy to play with, which must have been lovely for Charlotte because she'd been quite isolated. He wrote by Tara and his memoirs 40 years later. His writings provide an important source for our knowledge of her childhood. By then had become the RL of Albemarle. He related to high a crowd gathered hoping to see the princess on shame capital joined the cried and Coke nato and nobody recognized them. Charlotte was second in line to the throne, so an anti-node five. The king himself took charge of her education employing a large staff, the Bishop of Exeter and struct guitar and antagonism. As it was believed that one day she would be queen and she would base supreme governor of the Church of England in that role. George the Third wanted her teachers to render her on, on our uncomfort to her religions and a blessing to the Dominions over which he may hereafter preside. Charlotte on the other hand, it was a little bit selective about what she wanted to learn. She loved music and she became an accomplished pianist. Then him, an incident which must have been difficult for a child to process the so-called delicate investigation. Princess Caroline was false during a boy called William Austin. And it was claimed that she was actually the child's mother by a lover. And anti-nodes seven, she faced an investigation into misconduct called the delicate investigation. George instigated it, and he did this because he wanted to divorce Charlotte. So we wanted to find some kind of evidence that would allow him to divorce her. During this time, Charlotte was forbidden to see her mother. 10-year-olds. Charlotte actually became quite distressed when she saw her mother and a park, and her mother ignored her Jew to her father's edict, the investigation, flight and no evidence of affairs, but didn't make the point that the princess has conduct laughed her open to allegations. And remember in the Georgian era, reputation walls, everything. George the Third was fond of Princess Caroline but kept her away during the investigation. Night she had been cleared. She was received at the palace again. Prince George NADH grudgingly allowed Caroline on Charlotte to see each other. William Austin was forbidden from playing with Charlotte. Let's talk about Charlotte's teenage years. As a teenager, Charlotte was viewed as lacking decorum by the royal court, that she was a little bit undignified. That was because she was one of those personalities that just tells it like they say it, I'm actually that was something that people liked to bite her. Lady did clever, despaired of Charlotte's underwear, her long underwears they were in those days being seen up the ankles. This was very dignified. Lady sharp Barry, Princess Charlotte slit in we're dying, praised her for her lack of protection on her kinds of matter. It was something that either mid people despair of her or actually won her popularity. Charlotte became an excellent horse women, which pleased her father. He was proud of that. And she loved Mozart and Haydn. She identified with the character of Maryann and that fashionable new novel by that fashionable new writer Jane Austen. Sense and Sensibility. I'm Marianne. If you've read the novel, tends to wear her heart on her slave and just say things on Charlotte herself was very like that. George the Third's mental illness ticket, very firm grip. Charlotte loved her grandfather, who was very affectionate to her, and she was really saddened by his illness. On the sick, the February 1811, Prince George, her father, was appointed as Prince Regent. The ceremony took place before the Privy Council at Carleton highs, with Charlotte riding up and died on horseback ICT side trying to catch a glimpse, Charlotte supported the Whigs. I was art ridged by her father's abandonment of the party as she sought when he became regent, she made her feelings known by blowing kisses to the wig, later, Earl Grey. Despite the fact that the prince regions had a lot of resentment or bite his own strict upbringing, George decided to tighten the rans on his 15-year-old daughter. He gave her very little money for closed despite the fact that he himself spent huge amounts of money on clothes. I told her that she must sit at the back of the box of the Opera and lay before the end of that was because the opera was summer that people went to see him be saying, and people would be hoping for a glimpse of the princess. He did this so that she couldn't really be saying. She spent most of her time, but Wednesday night with her unmarried and she developed a crush on her first cousin George Fitz currents, who was the illegitimate son of Jacob Clarence, her father's brother. He was recalled to join his regiment on. She transferred her affections to left-handed Charles has set up the light trigger, reputed to be the son of Charlotte's uncle prints Fredrick Duke of York in Albany. The young pair has several secret meetings and lady to converge, panicked and case the Prince Regent finite. But Princess Caroline was pleased that her daughter was showing some passion, albeit for her first cousin, Princess Caroline alive, the uncoupled to meet alone and rooms and her apartments. The royal family and general knew about the relationship, but did nothing to interfere as Georgia's treatment of Caroline out of Charlotte was considered to be pretty PR. Let's talk about that famous spot between Charlotte and her father over the whole issue of marriage. In 1813, George began to consider the issue of a marriage for Charlotte. His advisers proposed william hereditary Prince of orange on this much would increase Britain's influence in Northwest Europe. Now, let's remember that George had gotten himself into financial trouble on B23 money at a rate of knots. And he was going to be looking for a marriage for his daughter, which supplied a pretty large Dari. I think it's fair to assume Charlotte first met William at George's birthday party on the 12th of August, 1813. Unfortunately, he was drunk off his face as well as her father. She didn't particularly worm to him. He did not seem like a cat. Charlotte had heard the rumor that she was to be married to William, although no one had officially told her this and she didn't much like the idea. She has started with the belief that a British Queen should not marry a foreigner. But that was possibly because she had somebody English that she would rather Mary and mind George belief that Charlotte wanted to marry Prince William Fredrick Duke of Gloucester. So he verbally abuse to Charlotte and Gloucester. Charlotte wrote, he spoke as if he had the most improper ideas of my inclinations. I see that he is completely poisoned against me and that he will never come round. She's still are all great advice on he told her to play for time. The Storey Lake dot enter the papers because remember back then, pretty much like No, I, People loved a good royal gossip story. Not only the idea of the marriage of the princess about her fight with her father was something that people were talking about. The Prince Regent tried to softer approach, but Charlotte couldn't be swayed. On the 12th of December after dinner party with the Prince of Orange, George OS Charlotte, for a final decision on the matter. She replied that she liked what she'd seen so far, maybe just try to please her father, which George took as our acceptance of his favorite much. He called the prints into the room to inform him. Several months of negotiations followed on Charlotte and assistant, she should not be required to leave Britain. The marriage contract and to avoid a union between the British throne on the motherland, the couples eldest son was to inherit Britain and the second sum, the Netherlands, if there was only one sound, throw to, the Netherlands, would pass to the German branch of the highest of orange. Charlotte signed the marriage contract on the 10th of Jane, 1814. But privately, she was besotted with a Prussian prints by this time, and we don't exactly know who. But there are several possible cabinets. She went to a party at the potency hotel and London and met prints labelled of socks, Escobar cell fields. Around this time. She asked him to call on her what she did. He stayed for about 45 minutes on rote to apologize to the Prince Regent later if this had been indiscreet because remember in the Georgian period, reputation is everything. This behavior and pressed the prince, although he didn't consider the impoverished Leopold as a match for his daughter and he's going to want to get some money for giving his daughter away. Basically, princess Caroline opposed her daughter's match with the Prince of Orange quite vocally. When Charlotte went out in public, people would urge her not to abandon her mother by marrying William. So Caroline had managed to get public opinion on the side of Princess Charlotte. Charlotte to William, that if they married, her mother must be made welcome and their home. And that was sure to really displace the prince regent. William said, no, he wouldn't agree on Charlotte broke off the engagement. Her father responded by placing our under Virtual High harassed. She was to remain and where I cause sentence she could be moved to crime born Lodge, where she would be permitted to say no one but Queen Charlotte. When she was informed the best, Charlotte rushed out into the street and then she'd lived a very sheltered life. In fact, she'd been locked away for a good part of her life. She didn't really know how to do things like hail a cab. So a commoner spotted her, the window panicking and straight and came down and showed her how to hail a cab and she went to her mother's highest. Caroline has sent home from visiting friends on Charlotte summoned Whig leaders to advise her. Several members of the royal family also came. This was a real crisis and cleaning prince Frederick with a warrant in his pocket to secure her return by force if it be necessary. The Whigs advised her to return to her father's house, which he did the next day. The story became big news. I'm not just because it was good gossip, but politically, the opposition plasmid use of the story of the runaway princess. Henry Brown poem, the future wig Lord Chancellor commented, all are against the prince. He was already quite unpopular unless didn't matter as much. Despite an emotional meeting with his daughter, George, has Charlotte taken to crown born lodge with instructions to the stuff that she was not to be let out of their sight. She smuggled a note to her uncle principle Justice Jacob Sussex though the Jake consequences on the jig consequently question to the Prime Minister lord Liverpool and the House of Commons. He wanted to know if Charlotte was free to come and go. Could she follow doctor's advice to go to the seaside? And could she have her own establishment now that she was 18 years old? Liver apo did not answer. He evaded the questions. The Prince Regent summoned his brother to Carleton highest berated him and never spoke to him again. Charlotte eventually came to find her time at Crown born large, tolerable. She was upset when her father visited in July 1814 and told her that her mother was leaving for the continent. And definitely she was farther upset by her mother's quick casual parting words for God knows how long or what a bed smack higher before we made the GAN, she actually never saw her mother again. Charlotte was permitted to go to the seaside and August, she had wanted to go to the very fashionable resort of brightened, but her father refused. So she ended up in Weymouth where she seems to have had a good time. Crowds met her affectionately. Illuminations there proclaimed hail Princess Charlotte, Europe's hope I'm Britain's glory. Charlotte explored the attractions, went shopping for silks onto hated seawater baths. Actually, it kind of makes you want to go to wave of those not she hoped her Prussian prints would declare an interest in her to the Prince Regent. And she wrote to a friend that I thought didn't work out. She would take the next best thing, which is a good tempered man with good sense. That man is the prince of sex and Kohlberg. In other words, Leopold, sadly her Prussian prints, funds and other love, which was a shock to the young shot. After Christmas dinner that year she and her father reconciled. Other she still wanted to marry Leopold and her father is still wanted her to marry William. She wrote that no arguments, no threats shall ever been made to marry this to test a Dutchman. The royal family sided with Charlotte on George, eventually given william buried Grand Duchess Anna Pavlov, not Russia thoughts summer, Charlotte renewed communications with Leopold, was receptive, but Napoleon had renewed the Napoleonic Wars on. He was fighting with his regiment. Charlotte formally requested her father's permission to marry Leopold. And July, remember, there had been the royal marriage acts. You needed the permission of the monarch or the reagent in order to marry. If you are a member of the royal family, the prince replied that the unstable political situation on the continent meant he could not consider such a request. Labeled did not visit Britain, one-piece was declared, although he was stationed in Paris, what Charlotte thought of as a very short hop to Weymouth. Charlotte was invited to the royal pavilion and brighten and anti 1 16th, I'm plated with George to ally the marriage. She returned to Windsor on road to her father. I no longer hesitate and declaring my partiality in favor of the prints of Kohlberg, assuring you that no one will be more steady or consistent in this, they're present and last engagement than myself. George given I'm called Leopold to Britain. He arrived at 1816. I went to Brighton for a formal interview with the Prince Regent. After dinner with Leopold on her father, Charlotte wrote, I find him charming and go to bed happier than I have ever done yet in my life. I'm certainly a very fortunate creature and have to blast God, a princess, never, I believe, satire in life or married with such prospects of happiness. Real domestic ones like other people. George told Charlotte, but Leopold had every qualification to make a woman happy. Now, the Prince Regent did seem to know a bit about making women hobby, just not his wife and daughter. Charlotte was sent back to Chrome board launch on the second of March, leaving Leopold with the Prince Regent. An announcement of the engagement was made to the House of Commons and the 14th of March on Parliament naturalized Leopold as a British citizen. He was given £50 thousand a year, which is about 3.920 million twenties Money. Clare Mathias was purchased by parliament for the kapo with a grant to set up their new home. George limited Charlotte's contact with Leopold and he or she changed her mind and broke off the engagement because she'd broken off her last engagement. The couple were allowed to make dinner button not to be alone together. The date of the wedding was sat for the second of May. It teams 16. The crowds which gathered were so large the wedding party had difficulty and gathering to the ceremony. The wedding took place and the crimson drawing re-map current and high-schools Leopold address and the uniform of a british Field Marshal. Charlotte's wedding dress cost over £10 thousand, which was a byte 78 thousand in today's money. You can see here the drafts picture to the right. It's lovely. The idea of the white wedding dress was actually invented by Queen Victoria previously in history, I wedding dress could be any color. It was referred to as a true. So Charlotte giggled when the impecunious Leopold VOD and Die Hard with all his worldly goods. The couple of honeymoon to Oakland place, which was the residence of the jig of York. And Sarah, Charlotte wrote that Leopold was the perfection of a lover. The Prince Regent visited undescribed military uniforms to Leopold for to our strength. That was actually a good sign that they were getting on Charlotte coat. That's a great mark of the most perfect good humor relationships. The family are much improved. When the capital return to London and visited the theater, the audience burst into spontaneous applause and the company signed God save the king, the national anthem and honor of Charlotte and her husband. Princess Charlotte took a look at the Opera to grit public concern. It was announced that she had had a miscarriage. On the 24th of August, Charlotte and Leopold moved into Claire monetised Leopold, Dr. Christopher stock Mark noted that the princess dress simply and in good test for the first six months of the marriage, I wonder what she dressed like before and after that. I'm not. She was calmer and showed more self-control and he attributed this to Leopold, influence. Leopold later wrote, except when I went out to shoot, we were together always and we could be together. We did not tire with Charlotte became excited, but he would say, do small, shelly, gently darling. And Charlotte's pet name for Leopold became too small. The coupled became known as the Kohlberg's. They spent Christmas of brightened Pavilion. The prints regions flashy brightened pads. The Prince Regent gave a huge ball and the seventh of January to celebrate Charlotte's 21st birthday. But the Kohlberg's actually didn't go to the bulk, returning privately declare my entice, and lead April 1817, leopold told the Prince Regent that Charlotte was pregnant. Again. There was intense public interest and the pregnancy babbling shops took wedges on the gender of the baby. As economists forecasted that a baby princess would raise the stock market by 2.5%, whereas I knew prints would cause growth of 6%. Charlotte had been eating a lot on getting little exercise due to the mate to rest. People were worried because of her former miscarriage, lit and her pregnancy. Her doctors put her on a strict diet. The diet on intermittent bleeding left her very weak. Kristin stock bar Leopold physician thought her treatment was I did it unfair that have anything went wrong, he would get the blame as he was a foreigner. Charlotte's case was led by Sir Richard Croft, who was an AAC who share. So he wasn't an actual obstetrician. He was like a male midwife. And that was a fashion amongst the well-heeled and Georgia and society. Charlotte's due date was the 19th of October, but by the end of October, she was still pregnant. She went into labor on the 3rd of November. Richard encouraged her to exercise on wooden, left her eight. That evening. He sent for the officials who were to witness the Royal Birth. The fifth of November, it became clear that Charlotte couldn't deliver the baby. Obstetrician John Sims was called bought crop would not allow him to say Charlotte on forceps were not used knife. The use of forceps might have saved both mother and child. Are there there was a high mortality rate associated with the procedure. It was considered high-risk as antiseptics have not yet been discovered. Sadly, the baby boy, but Charlotte gave birth to her, was stillborn at 09:00 PM on the 5th of November 1817. The official observers commented to the baby looked like other members of the royal family. Assured that Charlotte herself was well, the official observers left. Charlotte reflected that the child's death must have been the will of God, and she was completely exhausted. She was also only 21, so she presumably thought she had time to have more children. She was given food after her long fast and seemed to be recovering. Leopold who never left her side during the birth, which was unusual in the edge, take an opiate and went to bed after midnight, shot at the gown, vomiting and complaint of pain in her abdomen. So Richard was called and when he arrived, she was cold to the touch and have difficulty breathing. She was clearly very ill and she was also bleeding. So he did what was common at the time to try and stop postpartum bleeding and used hot compresses, but it didn't work. He called for stock market and told him to wake Leopold. Leopold was difficult to wake because he'd taken an opiate stock bar, went to see the print SAS who told him they have made ME tip say. He left the room to go and fetch Leopold, but her chart I colleagues stocky, stocky. When he re-entered the room, she was dead. Henry problem wrote of the public reaction to Charlotte staff. It really was as though every high sold throughout Great Britain had lost a favorite child. Lemon droppers round. I took black cloth as the whole nation mourned. Even homeless people wore black armbands for Princess Charlotte. The Times wrote it certainly does not belong to us to find that the visitations of providence, there is nothing impious at craving for that as a calamity, The Princess is death on her son's death was a calamity and had wiped out two generations of the royal family. The Prince Regent was so overcome with grief at the loss of his daughter that he was unable to attend her funeral. Princess Caroline fainted when she heard the news from passing carrier. She later said, England's that grip country has lost everything and losing my Avar beloved daughter. Even the Prince of Orange mourned on ordered the ladies of his court to go into mourning. Stock Mar wrote of Prince Leopold November saw the ruin of this happy home and the destruction at one blow of every hope and happiness of Prince Leopold. He has never recovered. The failing of happiness which had blast has short married life. Leopold remarried and 1832, and he had become king of the Belgians by that time and married of earlier. His eldest daughter and press Carlota of Mexico was named after Charlotte. Prince Leopold wrote to Sir Thomas Lawrence. Two generations gone, gone in a moment. I have felt for myself, but I've also felt for the Prince Regent. My Charlotte has gone from the country. It has lost her. She was good. She was an admirable woman, non-code. Know my Charlotte as I didn't know her. It was my study, my JD to know her character, but it was my delight. Charlotte and her son are buried and some George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. 64. William IV : In this video, we're going to talk about whether in the fourth, he's famous of course for having big the predecessor of Queen Victoria. But in his own right, he did some very interesting things. He joined the Royal Navy at quite a young age and he saw a bit of the world. Unlike his father George the Third, who never went further than a 150 miles away from home. Some really interesting things hot and, and his ran, especially in regards to electoral reform, as we're about to find out. His name was William Henry. He was born on the 21st of August 1755, and he lived until the 20th of June 1837. He was king of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and also king of Hanover. He ascended the British throne aged 64, and he's actually the oldest person to have ever ascended the throne. He was the third son of George the Third, and he was known as the Sailor King because he served in the Royal Navy in North America and the Caribbean. He was appointed as Lord High Admiral and 1827, and he was actually the first person to hold the office since 1709. During his red, the PR law was updated. Slavery was abolished throughout the British empire. Child labor was restricted on the electoral system was updated and the Reform Act of 1832. When was the last king to a point a prime minister, contrary to the will of Parliament, he granted Hanover a liberal constitution, which was short-lived. He had ten illegitimate children with the actress Dorothea Jordan. With him he lived for 20 years, but no legitimate heirs. He married princess outlet of socks and mine again when he was nearly 53. He had no legitimate heirs, as we mentioned, when he was succeeded by his niece, who took the rational Nam of Queen Victoria. She had been Princess Alexandra Ana Victoria. However, he was succeeded by his brother artist Augustus. He undid his liberal constitution. Was born on the 21st of August 1765 at Buckingham heist, as it was then the third child of Georgia. Third, I'm Queen Charlotte. As he had two older brothers, he wasn't expected to become king. He was christened and the grid console chamber of James's Palace on the 20th of September, with his godparents being his father, siblings, Prince William Henry, Duke of Gloucester, princess Augusta, hereditary Duchess of Brunswick, involving buckle, and Prince Henry, who would later become jig of Cumberland. He was educated by private changes in Richmond on at Q2 palace. He joined the Royal Navy as a midshipman. It's 13. The left-hand end of his watch was Richard Goodwin, Kate's. He became a lifelong friend and from him he learned all about the Navy and salesmanship. Button was of course on naval power. So it was useful for a young prince to have this information. He took part in the battle of kips and Vincent, of course, we heard all about that when we heard about Lord Nelson. He was not treated like an ordinary sailor though, for example, he had a cheater accompany him aboard ship. He did cook when it was his turn, however, and he was arrested along with his ship mix after a drunken brawl and Gibraltar. He was quickly released though when it became known he was a prince. He was the only member of the British Royal Family to set foot in America before and during the American Revolution, serving a New York during the American War of Independence, George Washington actually approved a plot to kidnap William right into parallel Ogden in March 1780 to the spirit of enterprise, so conspicuous and your plan for surprising and their quarters, I'm bringing off the Prince William Henry and Admiral dig Bay meets applause. And you have my authority to make the attempted anti-matter out at such a time as your judgment may direct. I am fully persuaded that it is unnecessary to caution you against offering insult or indignity to the persons of the prints or admiral. The British caught wind of this plot though, and assigned guards to the prints. Before that, he used to just sort of walk around New York unaccompanied. Wouldn't get, became a leftenant. And 1785, and in 1786 he became captain of HMS Pegasus. He was stationed in the West and days and 1786 under her ratio Nelson, who wrote to him and his professional line, he is superior to two-thirds I am sure, of the naval list and an attention to orders I'm respect to his superior officer. I hardly know has equal no, I thought couldn't, of course be said of Nelson himself. He doesn't quite like a bang orders. Nelson and William had dinner together every evening and became firm friends. And he insisted on giving the Broadway at Nelson's webbing. 17 idiot. William was given command of HMS Andromeda 1789. He was given command of HMS volume and promoted to rare Admiral. Williams elder brothers have been given victims and parliamentary grants and William Weld are the same, but his father was husband, wanted him threatened to stand for election as an amp pay for the constituency of tautness and Devon. George the Third was suitably completely horrified amid William Jacob Lawrence and Sudan Andres and olive monster on the 16th of May 1789 with the words, I, well, no, it as another vote added to the opposition. It did not adhere to the policies of a single party because of course, by becoming a GIC, he added the House of Lords. He publicly allied himself with awakes though, asked it as algia brothers and opposition to their father who favored the Tories. Then left the Royal Navy and 17901793, when Britain declared war on France, he expected to be given a command, but it didn't happen, possibly because he had fallen down the stairs and broken his arm while it's drunk, or more likely because he had made a speech in the House of Lords opposing the war. The next year, he spoke in favor of the war unexpected to be given a command, but didn't receive one. The Admiralty didn't reply to his requests for a command. He was made an admiral, but that was purely an honor, a role. In 1811, he became the honorary admiral of the fleet. Button never saw active service and the Napoleonic wars. He visited the troops fighting in the low countries and 1813, on the bullet pierced his coat as he watched the bombardment of on-farm from a church state, both the House of Lords, he spoke against the abolition of slavery, arguing that slaves would not benefit from freedom. He pointed out that he was well-traveled and claim that he had observed. But the living standards of slaves in the West Indies, we're higher than some of those free men and the highlands and Islands of Scotland, the Caribbean. He had met social acquaintance with plantation owners on absorbed their views. His arguments were actually seen as rays and unjust by some of his contemporaries, but others were shocked by his insular attitude. Is mid and speech to the highest Florence. He personally and salted William Wilberforce with the words. The proponents of the abolition are either fanatics or hypocrites. And one of these classes I Reich Mr. Wilberforce. He was liberal on other issues though, for example, he was in support of the abolition of penal laws against religious dissenters. He also spoke against proposals to stop those fond guilty of adults rate from re-marketing, making it marriage. Let's talk about Williams relationships, marriage and children. And 1791, William began living with the Irish actress Dorothea blonde. His stage name was Mrs. Dorothea Jordan. She adopted the title of Mrs. due to her pregnancy and the name Jordan, as she felt that crossing from Ireland to England was like crossing the biblical River Jordan into the promised land. When it can fight it to a friend that Mrs. Jordan is a very good creature, very domestic and careful of her children to be sure she is absurd sometimes that has her humors. But there are such things more or less in all families. The couple of didn't particularly draw attention to themselves, but loved to entertain. Dorothea wrote in 1809, we shall have a fuller Mary highest this Christmas to swap the deer Duke delights in George the Third except of this relationship. But you wouldn't have imagined he would've been very pleased to bite, but he did accept that, although he thought that William pay Dorothea too high and alliance and thought it should be kept in half. In 1797, the king appointed William as Ranger of Bushy Park, which came with a large home, but she highest for his growing family. The famous architect John Nash design Clarence highs because of course when he was Jacob Clarence for William assets, principal loves, and residents. It was constructed between 18251827. Today it has the London base of Charles Prince of Wales. Dorothea on William had ten children, five sons and five daughters. Nine of them were named after William siblings and they were given the surname fits Clarence as an son of Clarence as he was of course, Jacob Clarence. The coupled split and 1811 and Dorothea perceived financial issues as the reason for the end of the relationship and said, Money, money, my good friend has, I am convinced met him at this moment, the most ratchet of man with all his excellent qualities, his domestic virtues, his love for his lovely children. What must he noted that this moment suffer. She was given a settlement of £4,400 per annum, which is around £326,400.20 twenties money. She was also given custody of her daughters. All the proviso that she not return to acting when she did return to acting to pay off debts built up by her daughter's husband. William took custody of their daughters and stopped paying the amendments that he normally paid off the thighs and bonds, which is around £107 thousand in today's money. Dorothy is acting career failed and she moved to France to escape her creditors. She died in pattern or a near Paris in 1816. One of them had another illegitimate child before he met Dorothea, who drawn off the coast of Madagascar while serving on HMS blend them. And February 1807. Like his brother George, William built up debts. I needed to marry a wealthy era's to pay them off. He made overtures to Catherine tilde, the law known as the wheelchair era's, but she turned him down. When Princess Charlotte, who was second in line to the throne, died in 1817. George the Third was left with 12 children, but no legitimate grandchildren on. So the royal junks were under pressure to marry and produce our Hanover air. What did him seemed like the most likely brother to achieve this as Georgia and Frederick were estranged from their wives who went beyond child-bearing age anyway. It was also starting to look possible, but William could ascend the throne. Williams choices of bride either turned him down or met with the disapproval of the Prince of Wales. Put it this way, he was night and to his 50s, he was known for running up debts. If you were a royal father, he didn't seem a great choice for your daughter. His younger brother prints Adolphus jig of Cambridge, went to Germany to find a bride for William asked suggested princess August of a has-a castle, but her father turned down the match. The jig of Cambridge bride princess Augusta himself. Two months later. Eventually William buried princess Adelaide of snacks and mine and who was willing to accept his nine surviving children. The wedding took place on the 11th of July at teenage obtain. The marriage was happy and lasted for 20 years until William's death. Adelaide managed well, it was finances and got them back on track. And for the first year of their marriage, they lived economically and Germany, parliament and Chris Williams Alliance, but the client has requests for a further increase and he was not on the way to clearing his debts. Wait him his belief not have had mistresses during his marriage. Adelaide and William had two daughters who sadly died in infancy and three miscarriages. There were frequent rumors of royal pregnancies. What did him as Lord High Admiral? George had been appointed Prince Regent and 1811 and became King George the Third died in 1820. William a second deadline to the throne after his brother Fredrick, Duke of York and Albany. Way, you've had really changed his lifestyle since his marriage. He no longer drunk alcohol, replacing it with lab and barley. Walter on walked for ours. He also add economically and didn't splurge on FaceTime. And so he had a healthier lifestyle than his older brothers who had quite unhealthy lifestyles. And it seemed likely he would outlive them and ascend the throne. Frederick died in 1827 on the 60-year-old William became heir apparent. The new Prime Minister George counting, appointed William is Lord High Admiral. This office had been held by a commission rather than the individual. Since 1709. William often finds himself in conflict with the Admiralty cancer. 1828, relations with naval officers of the consulate rates to crisis. When William Pitt to save with a squadron of ten ships without leaving word or whether we're going, it's a bit like borrowing your parent's car without permission. He was in trouble. The Prime Minister of the Duke of Wellington voice the King's request that the Jacob parents resign as Lord High Admiral G to this behavior. Despite this, william have been quite competent and the role he had abolished the use of the cat of nine tails, which was a whip with nine strengths to it. It was very cruel actually as a punishment to be whipped with a cat of nine tails. And you know that phrase, you couldn't swing a cat. That doesn't mean a feline, it means a cat of nine tails. So William abolished the use of it for a fence as other than mutiny, tried to improve the standard of the use of firearms the Navy and required regular status reports on the condition on preparedness of h ship. He commissioned the first statement warship and had wanted to order more. Three has experienced as Lord High Admiral William learn not to act with like, kind soul. So he did learn his lesson and he followed this principle when he became king. William turned his attention to the House of Lords when he was no longer Lord High Admiral, where he supported the Catholic amounts of patient and opposition to the status of his brother artist Augustus Jacob Cumberland, whose opposition to the Catholic amounts of patient bill he called infamous. By 1830, it was clear that George the Fourth was nearing death. George told William, God's will be done. I have injured no man, it will all rest on you then what didn't have a genuine affection for his older brother, but it was nonetheless clear that he expected that he would soon became his ran as William the fourth. George the Fourth died on the 16th of June, 1830, and William succeeded him as King. William the fourth, age 64, at the time the oldest person to save the British throne. He still holds this record. Actually, we're going to have different styles. Has extravagant brother on a shoot over the top pomp and ceremony which made him quite popular. Early in his reign, William was known to walk on accompany to, through London and bright and so he was very informal. It was more popular than his brother had vein, as the public viewed him is more down to earth on approachable. And of course, George the Fourth having very unpopular because of the way he spent money on, because of the way he treated his wife and daughter. The Jacob Wellington claim to have done more business with William and ten minutes than they had done in ten days with George. Lord Braam reported that William asked enough questions to understand issues. George the Fourth asked not enough for fear of like an ignorant on George the Third asked too many questions and didn't wait for an odd sir. William's obvious desire to be popular, it was commented upon by his contemporaries. For example, the poet and novelist, Emily A1 reflected. He is an immense improvement on the last unforgiving animal who died grilling Sakai and his dad at Windsor. This man at least wishes to make everybody happy. And everything he has done has been benevolent. He's viewed much more favorably than George the Fourth had been. We didn't get half of Georgia fourths art collection to the nation, have the royal stab, dismiss George's Fred shafts and Germans bombed and replace them with English staff, all of which added to his popularity. He tried to give away the newly renovated expensive residents of Buckingham Palace, wants to the RMA as a barracks and wants to parliament after the Houses of Parliament barn died in 1834. When and residents and brightened, he would ask local hotels for the gas atlas and invite everyone he knew to dinner, telling them, Don't bother about clothes. The queen does nothing but embroidered flowers after-dinner. You would imagine if you suddenly got an invitation to die and that became, but you would actually completely panic about what you were going to wear. So that was very nice of him and it shows a certain formality of character. Once upon the throne, he created his eldest some As Arlo of Munster and gave his other children to status of adults are our younger son of a request. Nonetheless, has children pressed him for more influence on the Morning Post to care at that. The impudence and repository of the fits Jordan's is unexamined. This led to family infighting between William and his sons over money and honors which William find quite painful. His daughters, on the other hand, fared very well at court, being pretty and lively. And the words of the historian on Somerset, let's talk about a period of his ran where William wasn't particularly popular and that was the reform crisis. During this period, the death of a monarch necessitated a general election. When George the Fourth died in 1830, a general election was called. Wellington's Tories maintained the majority but lost grind to the Whigs under Lord Grey. The Tories were Bobby divided on Wellington was defeated in the House of Commons in November, leaving Lord Greg to form a government. Great promise to reform the electoral system which have not been revised since the 15th century. The electrical system perpetrated many inequalities. I think it's fair to say Manchester and Birmingham has no representation as they were part of the boroughs. There was also such a thing as a rotten or pocket Birra nowadays elected to MP's H, for example, old serum, which only had seven voters, seven voters, TM pays whole study of Manchester, doesn't have a zone MP. You know what I'm saying? Powerful aristocrats often controlled the vote. And these rotten boroughs, since the ballot was not secret on the voters were their tenants. Landowners could even sell seats to prospective candidates. The first reform TO was defeated in the House of Commons and it 1831 grades ministry aren't William to dissolve parliament, which would trigger a general election. It hesitated today. So as there had only Bain a general election the year before on, William feared that the public failing was high enough to lead to violence during an election campaign. He wills high ever irked when the opposition tried to move an address or a resolution through the House of Lords against the solution which he regarded the asthma attack on his royal prerogative. Following Lord grades advice, he decided to go to the House of Lords and person and Baroque parliament in order to stop the address. When told that his horses couldn't be ready at such short notice, he replied that van, I will go in a Hockney cab. In other words, he would call a taxi. His horses were Julie prepared and he said All for parliament. The Times wrote, it is actually impossible to describe the same. The violent tones and gestures of the noble Lords astonished the spectators and affected the ladies who were present with visible alarm. One of the violent tones came from the markers of London, Derry, who brandished a web on, threatened to use it on government supporters, but was restrained by four colleagues. When he put on his crime, walked into the House of Lords, undissolved parliament. This provided a grip victory for the reformers. The commons was in favor of reforms, but the lords were laughed and fury added when it was crying, I'll the 8th of September 1831. And there was a brief pause and the political strife, we didn't actually see the need for carnation having already warned the crime to Baroque parliament, Williams coordination costs £30 thousand, whereas George the fourths, I had cost £240 thousand. Some hardline Tories threatened to boycott the so-called half crown nation. A half crime being a coin of not high volume with a bite on eighth of a pond. The king responded, he was happy for them not to turn up as it would create greater convenience of room and less heat. The second reform bug was rejected by the House of Lords and October 1831. And violent demonstrations and support of electoral reform spread across the country known as the reform riots. Graves ministry re-introduced the bill despite ongoing opposition to it. And the Lord's grace suggested that William create enough new pairs to pass the reforms. The king objected As he had already created 22 new pairs and his carnation honors, but eventually he acquiesced. He did this on the condition that new period just be restricted to the eldest sons and heirs of existing pairs so that the new pages would eventually be absorbed as subsidiary titles, thus limiting the number of pairs. The loris did not reject the reforms aren't right, but drafted amendments. Gray and his ministers threatened to resign if George did not create new pages to force the bell through and its existing form, the Qing accept of their resignations. He tried to reappoint Wellington as prime minister, but that does not have enough support to form administering Williams popularity fell sharply. Mud was flung of his carriage and he was stopped and public weight emigrate to re-instate grades ministry, and appoint new pairs at the Lords continued to block electoral reforms. Opponents of the bill abstained on the Reform Act was passed in IT team 32. Williams auctions were blend on the influence of his wife and brother and he became popular once more with the public. Let's talk a bit about Williams foreign policy. He acknowledged himself to be a bit of a xenophobia and he particularly disliked the French. He believed that Britain should abstain from involvement and the internal affairs of other states. Much to the chagrin of the interventionist foreign secretary lord Palmer's done when they're supportive Belgian independence and saw Princess Charlotte sweater, our Prince Leopold of sacks of Kohlberg and Gerta as a good candidate for the newly created throne of Belgium. Other often Toklas and forthright when speaking, ligand could be diplomatic and shrewd as well. He foresaw that the construction of the Suez Canal would mean that good relationships with Egypt would become essential to Britain. He also acknowledged the rising status of America until the American ambassador, he wished that he had been born afraid, independent American. Much did he respect that admission, which had given birth to George Washington, the greatest man that ever lived. And that was actually very diplomatic because as we know, Washington had plotted to kidnap William when he was a young man serving and New York. William attempted to hail Anglo-American relations, would have been badly damaged during his father's REM. William was of course, also king of Hanover. And Hanover at the public perception was that Britain dictated policy. It seems 32 the Austrian Chancellor climates from Medtronic, introduced laws to curb emerging liberal movements in Germany. Laura Palma Austin opposed these on salt William support on, however, when declined to intervene and entered into conflict with Palmer stone, Medtronic held a conference of driving states in Vienna in 1833 on Palmer stood wilted Hanover to decline to attend, but prints Adolphus, whether his brother, who was viceroy of Hanover, attended with William support. In 1833, Williams signed a new how to vary in constitution. Giving more parts of the middle-class is limited parts of the lower classes unexpanded the role of Parliament, it was revoked by his brother artist Augustus during his reign as king of Hanover. The litter years of William the forth, for the rest of his reign with him or her friend from intervening and politics, except on one occasion in 1834, he was the last moment to point a prime minister, contrary to the wishes of parliament, lord gray retired on the administrative walls on popular, Gray was replaced by William Lamb, second fx icon Melbourne. Melbourne maintained the same ministers on how to large parliamentary majority. When he was concerned about left-wing policies and disliked some of the incumbent ministers of the time. 1833, Gray had pushed through legislation reforming the church of Ireland, which was the Anglican Church in Ireland. The church collected tithes to pay for bishops and priests, even in areas where there were no members of the Church of island. The money came from Catholics and Presbyterians who felt that the clergy of the English imposed charge of Ireland, we're living in luxury. Many of those who provided their wealth lived in poverty. Grays act half the number of bishoprics on overhauled the system of the Church of Ireland. Radicals like Lord John Russell suggested ways of appropriating revenue from the Church of Ireland. The King personally disliked Russell and described him as a dangerous little radical. In November 1834, Melbourne needed to appoint a new leader of the Coleman's on a new Chancellor of the Exchequer. The only candidate he could find for later of the comments was Russell on that dismayed William add others. Welcome. Use the removal of the previous later Lord all Thorpe as a pretext to dismiss the entire ministry, he selected the Tory Robert payload as prime minister. Po was an SLA at the time. So Wellington acted as an interim Prime Minister. Wen penal return t find it impossible to govern with a wig majority and the highest of Coleman's parliament was dissolved on elections were called. The Tories increase their number of states, but the Whigs were still in the majority. Paints died in office for a few months, but fists, several defeats on resigned. Melbourne was reinstated as Prime Minister on William had to accept Russell as later on the Coleman's, Melbourne is policy sometimes perplexed William, such as the devolution of parts to the Legislative Council of Lower Canada, which William feared would lead to the loss of the colony. When Augustus fits Clarence asked if his father would be entertaining during an earthquake. They replied, I cannot give any dinners with ICT inviting the ministers and I would rather see the devil than any one of them. And my highest. When an adult rape case was brought against Malvern from the last affair with Lady Caroline Norton vote. William refused to let him resign and warm. They congratulated him when he won. When it came to realize that Melbourne was not as radical as he had first fairs, unlike seem to get along okay. Family relationships were even less straightforward. The king and queen were very fond of their nice Princess Alexandra Ana Victoria of Kent. But the king was in conflict with the princesses widowed mother, the Duchess of Kent, I'm Princess Alexandra and Victoria was of course Williams, heir apparent. The king was saved. The Duchess is having shown disrespect to his wife at his last birthday banquet and Eighteen Thirty-six, and decided to sell the score. He announced to those assembled that he hoped he would live until the princess was 18, so that the Duchess would never be reagent saying, I trust a goal that my life may be spared for nine months longer, I should then have the satisfaction of leaving the exercise of the royal authority to the personal authority of thought young lady Eris presumptive to the crime and not in the hands of a person non near bay who is surrounded by evil advisers and is herself and competent to act with propriety at the situation in which he would be pleased. The future Queen Victoria burst into tears. Her mother was persuaded not to just walk right at Mother adult laughed the next day when he got his wish on, survived until one month after Victoria is 18th birthday, when he was devastated by the death of his eldest daughter Sophia Liddy, deliberate and deadly and childbirth and April 18th, 37, he was estranged from his eldest son, George Carlin monster, who's sent to condolence letter, which way you'd hoped indicate that the possibility of a reconciliation, but sadly at didn't monster did not make things up with his father before he died, believing he had not been grounded, appropriate money or patronage. Queen outlet attend the NIH Dian Qing for ten days without going too bad. As he was dying. Princess Alexandra ANA wrote, paroled man, I feel sorry for him. He was always personally kind to me. The fourth died in the early years of the 20th of June 1837 of Windsor Castle, and it's buried there and St. George's Chapel. He was succeeded by his niece Alexandra Ana Victoria, who took the original name of Queen Victoria. She wrote that her uncle walls on good old man, though eccentric and singular. 65. Life in Victorian Britain: In this video, we're going to talk about life in Victorian Britain. Neither Victorian era saw rapid advances in technology and industrialization and not changed everyday life for a lot of people. And it also changed the structure of society as we're going to find ICT. This was the time of the emergence of the par, of the middle classes. Industrialization brought a bite. Changes in the structure of society which solve family life epitomized by Queen Victoria, Prince Albert on their family. And the middle-class is sort of modeled themselves on the royal family, who is kind of the ideal family. The middle-class grew in numbers and in wealth at this point in history, this created a huge demand for goods and services. We see consumerism really coming to you. The four and the Victorian period. The pond was strong on labor was cheap. The middle-class is bought endless clothes, toys for their children, find cutlery in Sheffield, silverware from Birmingham, property from Staffordshire polymerase, lit glass or whenever. So obviously, a lot of jobs were created on wealth was created in these areas. But previously, items such as these would have been owned by aristocrats, does not have a middle-class can live the kind of lifestyle that used to be limited to ask crowds in the past. And as a result, in the 1900's, a third of women aged 15 to 20 worked in domestic service as the middle classes started to employ servants, not just the aristocracy. Traditional view that some historians promote its not the reform activating 32 large war political part to the emerging middle classes who were enriched after the Industrial Revolution, the Victorian middle-class believed in a meritocracy. You know, the idea of the deserving per the idea of being deserving, you needed to work for what you got. And if you didn't have a lot, that was because you were maybe a bit idle and weren't working. They wanted to improve the lot of the working class are there. They didn't do a great job on that. First as whereby it's finite. Now they also wanted to challenge the privilege and corruption of the aristocracy. Entrepreneurship on a small and large-scale grew very quickly. A lot of local businesses on merchants and also larger industries being formed. Poverty was a real problem in Victorian times as was the treatment of the pair. Working conditions were lower paid workers were appalling. Much commented upon by people like Charles Dickens and other victorian writers. The work heist, which is where you went, you couldn't pay your debts or you got into financial trouble was a real fear for the last well, or if it was almost like a punishment for having ended up per, the working-class did see improvements in conditions between 1800s and 1890, though, terrorists houses were built to accommodate them, many of which still stands today. These were connected to running water, I'm drainage, very modern at the time, some even half gas. The Factory Acts starting in 1830 limited the number of ours that women and children can be expected to work on. Yes, children. Dead work. In the Victorian period, trade unions were actually banned until the late 19th century. What causes we mentioned that these struck fair to people's hearts. The parallel a man with activating 34 required that anyone wishing to Tim poverty relief have to live in a designated archives. Otherwise you weren't going to get at what we would call not benefits. There. They were expected to learn self-sufficiency by working for their food and board. You were expected to earn your cape by forcing people to do this. The idea was that you were educating them to look after themselves. It was thought to benefit the residents of the work causes. The Victorians hop is concept we mentioned before of the deserving PR, people who deserved or help because they would just unfortunate. Whereas there was another brand of prayer, which was people who were considered to be idle, lazy. And that's why they ended up, they were to be re-educated. Work causes provided homes were orphans, abandoned children, the mentally and physically disabled and the elderly, as well as unmarried mothers. So it wasn't just people who couldn't pay their debts. The ended up in the workplace. And it was a harsh life for all these people. Work causes were often very large and they were feared. Conditions were harsh. And there was, there was a real social stigma attached to ending up in a work highs. It was like the worst thing that could possibly happen to you. The government encouraged fear of what causes to discourage so-called idleness. The way that you might tell a small child, if you don't go to sleep, the bogey Bob might visit. Well, it's the same kind of idea. If you don't work hard, you could add up in a workhouse. Charles Dickens, his family were sent to debtors job when his father couldn't pay as creditors. That was unfortunately something that happens. Not only was the father of the family who's responsible for the high school in many cases, sent to debtors jail. But I whole family had to go with him when that happened. Dickens himself went to the relative, so he was spared thought experience. But he wrote about the conditions faced by the PR and Maddie and his novels which are still of course very much rad today. What causes employed MIT drums medical officers on master, a skill teacher at Chaplain, a porter. There were seen as benevolent institutions. Providing services to the PR unfortunate soon added up and the families were split up on entering the archives. Men and women were accommodated separately, and residents can actually be punished for trying to speak to family members you couldn't work across, not divide. In a worst-case, children were made to wear a uniform, which meant that they were easily recognizable as living in the rack heist and they happen to go outside of it. And of course, there was a stigma to living in a wet cast. They were not taught to read and write even though the Masters were employed as these skills were not considered essential for finding a job. The whole point of the where clauses to trim these children to go light on work and their own gate. The work that both children and adults were expected to do was hard and often unpleasant work. This gentleman here was actually pretty appalled by the plight of children, were causes. Children could actually hard to work in factories our minds, which was also very hard and sometimes dangerous work. Dr. Thomas Bernardo set up orphanages on children's homes from 1867 to rescue children from the fit of the work heist. Enter ten months and the Victorian Age was a very big deal. Musicals, theaters, museums, and art galleries were built in every large Todd, on some small ones by philanthropists. Not so a proliferation of culture and the arts. Seaside resorts were no longer the playgrounds of the aristocracy. Places like red yarn with a black Po became popular with the working classes. So they could not afford to go on holiday. New sports such as Long tennis and croquet became popular. And some old sports such as cricket, rugby, and football, had their rows updated. And the Victorian era, public skills had a real focus on sports, on games. Why am I always the bridesmaids? Here is an example of a Victorian music hall solid. And you can see here a picture of Daisy Durham, who was a famous music called performer. Now notice how she's flashing her legs and her ankles, considered very sulci and the Victorian era, it was a kind of bald, I can read it form of entertainment. Music halls provide a variety show. There would've been singers and musicians, there would have been magicians, comedians. It was a working class form of entertainment that started to emerge and it gave way to the modern musical overtime. That's here an example of a music hall song. Why am I dressed in these beautiful? Walked as the motto. Made abroad. 22 brides, this time awake. 23. It's you do, ladies, I know. It seems good to me and I think I could do the blushing. I shall awake. It's light entertainments. Another very famous musical song is of course, Daisy Bell, Lazy Daisy, Give me your answer. That's probably the most famous lambda we still remember today. Education. When we talked about education and shooter times at that point, not a lot of people actually went to school. It's very different. By the Victorian period, Education came to be regarded as a need and a Bachelor's as a universal right, very different thinking then they're happening in the past. Many new state or board church schools were established in the Victorian era. By 1900, nearly the whole population, it was literate, which was really quite amazing. And it called cost of greatly with literacy amongst her children and 30, the concept of childhood was very important to the Victorians and it was exemplified by the children out there, young queen Victoria. They have this kind of young family at the head of steps that become this pattern of an ideal family. Children's literature proliferate at the time with pigs that we still read today, such as Black Beauty by Anna, Alice in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll, out of course, Treasure Island. And a lot of these works of literature became the basis for children's literature that's written today. Commerce. Commerce was a very important factor in the Victorian age. Economic growth was sustained through the Victorian period. There was no net inflation for us century, which seems quite staggering to us in 2022. Sterling half grid or purchasing power than any other currency. Value being backed by gold reserves, unlike any other currency, what a family started to lose my name. It looked like they were going to go a bit broke. Moving to the continent, saved money and victorian families, often long-term as an athlete, the Riviera and Switzerland. The city of London was the largest financial center in the world. It was made up of joint stock blanks, talk brokers, insurance broker, ship brokers, records on dealers and Marriott currencies and commodities. Britain was known as the workshop of the world as its manufacturing reached every continent, it produced really modern things like steam engines, locomotives on ships, mass produce ceramics and textiles were not produced. They're both home on export markets, on raw cotton from Egypt on the southern USA, we shipped Liverpool and then it was spot on woven and ligatures. So there's a real international component. The economy of Britain in the Victorian period, cheap, mass-produced cotton was shipped around the world under Catholic that produced with Han blurbs and other areas. There were some very successful regional businesses. Iron was mined in the black country and South Wales. Ceramics were produced in Staffordshire. Shoes, forbidden North Hampton, for example, on Sue was produced in Sheffield. By the end of the 19th century, some British factories began to seem David compared to foreign counterparts. But they had initially been incredible success stories. Large enterprises did a barge such as ship owners, Harland and Wolff and bow faster. My own great-grandfather work there in the Victorian era. And Armstrong company in New Castle, which made armaments on hydraulics. Industry was financed by regional bank space outside of London and other cities. There was little government involvement under little correlation between this city and industry at this period in history, Victorians actually really despise the idea of government involvement in business EPO it occurred and other European countries such as France, Germany, on Russia. Many tons to die still have prominent examples of Victorian architecture and who Victorian streets and many people still live in Victorian houses. I, myself have only led to the modern high-school year. I lived in a Victorian highest mediators. Let's talk a little bit about the enduring popularity of Victorian architecture. Before the Victorian era, there was little distinction between architects, surveyors and developers. Like all those things were one job. Whereas after the 1880s, architecture emerged as a profession. And the Institute of British Architects was created in 1834. It became the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1837. The arrow Queen Victoria is excession. Large firms have architects and March such as that of Thomas cubit, designed many very expensive homes and bowel gray area on Pimlico in London. And also designed Osborne High School, the out of white for the royal family. The new railways give architects access to a broader range of materials. For example, Welsh slit could not be transported until it was used instead of tiles of many buildings. Other materials that can be more widely used included terracotta, flip glass on polished granite. So we start to see very or knit elements in Victorian architecture. It is an example of Victorian architecture. A hole straight up. It's very large terraces that we come to associate with the Victorian period. Also, in the Georgian period, tyrosinase is helping popular. They did failed country houses and when they did, you can see the kind of classical influence that they used. But the Gothic was also popular in Victorian era. There was a neo-Gothic revivals. You can see the kind of rounded windows at the top of this ice is an example of that. This is my family seat to the left-hand side here, adjustable and bagger in Northern Ireland, That's the back of it. It's actually much more or NIT at the front. And that was something that could happen. And the Georgian period, they used to talk about queen on fronds. Sally-anne buck sometimes happens with the Victorians as well. But you can see the bay windows, the slit roof, the Rhonda Gothic style to the windows, that very ordinate chimney Paltz, all very typical of the Victorian period. Most Victorian buildings were based on classical aesthetics. By the middle of the 19th century though the gulf that provide able to code it was used for the new houses of parliament. Very, very famous example of Victorian building. Of course, the Palace of Westminster had actually burned dine and answering 34. It also became the preferred style for Anglican churches. Architects work with other artists to make sculptures stand glass on pandemics. Gulf was not the universal style though there was a movement known as arts and crafts, which followed up, exemplified by the bracket architect William Morris. And you can see an arts and crafts. The load. It's not on the same scale as the graph neoclassical buildings that we looked up. It's still a very nice size of a home. You can see that sort of harking back to the past and this design, arts and crafts on strong interest in medieval period and they rejected many contemporary innovations. Many public buildings were built in Golf Tech or Italian at styles including tying halls, libraries, skills, concert halls and museums. Fashion. Now I went me think Victorian flash Breathe, Think of the course and other course it was quite frankly health hazard to maintain this idea of a very, very small waist women sometimes really suffered. They couldn't breathe properly. Occasionally thin did unaided smelling salts and also courses it squeeze your internal organs. Cytoplasm fashion was a serious business on a serious problem in the Victorian era. From erupting 37 to 1858 day where from the eighties incorporated long tight point of bonuses with those scarfs supported by layers and layers of petty coats, slaves were tight on Schulz, we're warned. You can see an example below here. It's all really about conspicuous consumption. You are using a lot of fabric, a lot of very rich fabric showing how wealthy you are. Gentlemen worldwide. Dreiser's on short launched jackets on colors were not as uncomfortable as they've been in the past. They were bows rather than carve-outs, as you can see in the picture here. By 1867 and industrial innovations and influence fashion. So steel wires were used to hold skirts ICT replacing the starch pedagogies. Well, I have worn both starched petty coats on steel bars for performance purposes, but I've been singing in various shoes, by the way, when you have a big steel wire, what happens is if you walk too fast, if you take two biggest step, if you don't just shuffled with small steps, the thanks, jumps up. Can hit you in the Hat. Very undignified. You can't actually move properly. And that kind of clothing, dresses were switched on sewing machines, which I introduced in the 1880s, and colors became brighter as aniline dyes have been introduced. Night they were very much enjoy morality and model state and the Victorian period is to address, has had high next on long sleeves, hats, heterogeneous bullets by 1870 to play to trimmings were fashionable, as you can see pictured here. Those were made possible by sewing machines. Even dresses were similar to die addresses but were lower and were slave. As you can see, a very lovely Victorian evening grasp pictured here to the right. Man. War launched its ship like my coats and turned on colors and not dice. Bowler hats also became popular. 85 buses were fashionable for ladies to support the share width of their heavily trimmed grasses. Can you imagine going with that much fabric drip drawn, very, actually very heavy. You can see the object while they were required a lot of basically scaffolding to hold up these dresses. Skirts were wide and played it. No, Not only did the buttons hold up the weight of their clothing, but they were based on the aesthetic of the pictures that we're starting ending of Hottentot beauties. Of course, in previous periods of history, unlike our own GB, filler arrived the posterior, what's considered aesthetically pleasing. In other words, you wanted your bum to look big and a bustle. Well, certainly do that for you. Of course it's worse to very tight. The rational dress society was created the 1880s to encourage making clothes less unhealthy. I'm more comfortable to wear. 1906 into the Edwardian period, hygienic strip onto courses were born under soft but highly embellished dresses. Puffs slaves were intended to emphasize the shoulders because at that point in history that was a part of you that you really wanted to show. All skirts were supported on petticoat scan, which one is decorative as the overdress is where hots are always worn over. Quite frankly, big hair. Epistles were also popular and something comes into fashioned virtual, probably these days don't know, hydrogen with the handbag. Handbags were often made of leather. I'm only you can start to carry it. You're useful bits and pieces watching. I hope this video has given you a useful little glimpse into life in Victorian Britain. 66. The Victorians & the Industrial Revolution: In this video, we're going to talk about something that really impacts on us today and that is the Industrial Revolution, but particularly high and impacted the lives of the Victorian autonomous definition of the industrial revolution. Industrial revolution in modern history, the process of change from an agrarian and handicraft economy to one dominated by industry and machine manufacturing. These technological changes introduced novel ways of working and living and fundamentally transformed society. The process began in Britain in the 18th century and from there spread to other parts of the world. The effects were technological, socioeconomic, and cultural. So basically it reached into every area of life. New fields were used such as coal and petroleum, with machines running on steam and electricity, which was a brand new concept. The combustion engine, the spinning jenny, and the power loom meant there was less human involvement and manufacturing, development and transportation on communication, such as trans cars plans, radio and telegrams changed both industry and private life. Natural resources were greatly consumed for the mass manufacturing of goods and not as the negative impact of the Industrial Revolution, both at the time and today. The consumption of natural resources, depleted natural resources. You've got things like smog and terrible sort of grimy darts. And the big cities that they Industrial Revolution calls to spring up. And of course today it has lead to issues with the environment. Agriculture was impacted and it was easier to provide food for a larger population. The first industrial revolution took place in Britain from 1760 to 1830, just before the reign of Queen Victoria, which began in 1837. It didn't remain limited to Britain as European businessman started to use British methods, they Englishman William John Cocoa brought the Industrial Revolution to Belgium when they develop machine shops at Liege and 1807, this big Belgium, the first continental European country to experience economic transformation due to industrialization. The Belgian Industrial Revolution, like it's British predecessor, focused on iron, coal, and textiles from industrialized more slowly than Breton or Belgium due to the French Revolution which discouraged investors. Basically, you never knew what was going to be happening next politically at that time. It became an industrial power though by 1848, Germany had large resources of coal and iron, but did not industrialized until after national unity and 1870 produce Britain and stabled by the turn of the 20th century on lab the world and chemical industries. The rise of the USA as an industrial park eventually outperformed European nations and the 19th and 20th centuries, Japan was also very successful. The Soviet Union became a major industrial part and the 20th century and achieved, and only decades what had taken britain AS century to achieve. The early stages of industrialization made conditions for poorly paid laborers very difficult. They could be replaced by machines and they had little job security. They had no legal protections under workplace regulations. And they weren't very long ours for low wages. They often lived in unsanitary tenements. The second industrial revolution took place in the 19th and 20th centuries. Industry exploited natural and synthetic resources, such as new alloys and plastics, as well as new energy sources. Computers or new tools and machines created automated factories. Mechanization, rather than the assembly line became prominent in the 20th century. Factories had once been owned by oligarchs and the mid 19th century, stocks best public companies, came to change the structure of the ownership of industries. And written, unlike some other European countries, government involvement in industry was not extensive. Hardware people's lives affected by all this. While the growth of technology led to the expansion of England's foreign par and the industrial revolution shifted the balance of power away from land-owning aristocrats, merchants and business leaders, and other words, the middle classes titled remained important in British society though, and the wealth they were actually able to buy them. Before the Victorian period, the UK's population have been largely rural and the industrial revolution caused cities to grow. Overcrowded, slums developed as a consequence. By 1980% of the population lived in cities where the work walls. Pr, people lived in the inner cities with the more affluent living in the outskirts, the suburbs. Industrial workers work from 06:00 AM to 09:00 PM daily without any holiday leave. Their children were often left unsupervised as they worked on half of all children died before the age of five of malnourishment and basically the richest country in the world. So there's a real discrepancy and the lifestyles of the affluent and the PR workers. By 18.539 of all funerals were for children under the age of ten. Back-to-back were built near the factories for the workers horses which shared a wall with windows at the front and hadn't no yard to the back. London and other cities waste from the highest as round or in the middle of the street to the sewers, creating a horrific smell. Disease was rife. In 183231 thousand people died of cholera, typhus. Smallpox on disintegrate were also common. Construction travel on new technologies. New technologies such as steam-powered machinery and state management transform British industry. And britain became the world's leading producer of industrial goods. Cool was needed to fuel this. From 1830 to 1870, coal output from British minds rose from 17 million tons a year, 221.3 million tons a year. Much of this cool was used for manufacturing iron. Textile exports of cotton unwilling products rose from 30 million bonds in 18322000001870. Inventors were important figures in this economic growth, such as James Nasmyth, who invented a steam hammer in 1842, capable of cracking the top of an egg and a wine glass at one blow. And I've shaking the parish at the next. Joseph Wentworth who devised a machine which could measure to one millionth of an inch. Henry Bessemer invented a new process for manufacturing steel. He made a 100% profit every month for 14 years. The transport revolution had begun in the 1700s with canals and Turnpike roads. The Victorian Age saw an expansion and transport by both lambda1, say early air travel. The railway engine in particular revolutionized the economy. It was felt of iron, fueled by coal and powered by steam. It linked to the towns and the countryside. The first public railway was opened in 1826 between Stockton and Darlington. By 1850, around 7 thousand miles of railway line habit laid across the country by anaphase or navigators. Neither Victorians were terrified of trends when they first emerged, they believe that traveling at really high speeds such as 30 miles an hour might snap your neck. That mileage, the 7 thousand miles was actually tripled by the end of the 19th century. Contractors such as George Hudson and Thomas brassy amassed huge fortunes from the railways. Engineers made a bit less money, but they still acquire fortunes. For example, the Stevenson's who are father and son on the very famous eyes and barred kingdom brew now, who built the Great Western Railway, The King's Cross to York line opened in 1850, and then the 1880s aligned from the east coast of Scotland was completed. There were smaller original lines on four major original companies, London, Midland and Scottish, London, and Northeastern on the grid, Western ribs were not met compulsory on third-class carriages until it 246. It was not going to be uncomfortable ride, especially since these were wooden boards at the weirdo toilets. Not good on a very long journey. Longer journeys could take a day or more, which was still less than it would've taken traveling around in a horse carriage. Ground stations appeared in cities and the daily commute came into being. In 1863, the first London underground line was opened, the Metropolitan line, as well as railways. The Victorians built roads, bridges, docs, and lighthouses. They also built sewers and drains. So they started to make their cities a little bit more symmetric. The Great Exhibition of 1851, the branches of Prince Albert showcase the technological innovations associated with these industries. You can see a picture of the grid exhibition to the bottom-right. Engineer Joseph Bazalgette, unbanked to the tabs to prevent flooding and also created a syringe system to make the capital more sanitary. It probably started to smell a little bit less bad at that point. Bruno was the most ambitious Victorian engineer, as well as railways. He constructed the box tunnel, the Clifton suspension bridge on Paddington station, as well as building three ships, the grid Western, the grid Eastern on the grid, Britain shipbuilding create a jobs in communities, especially in Belfast, near where I live and also in Glasgow. And also increased Britain's worldwide economic dominance. Here's a list of a few collaborate inventions that came about in the Victorian era. Electric lighting, the humble light bulb. I was actually an American invention, but the world over, we're really grateful for it. Photography, I'm moving pictures, railways, telephones, Anastasia, bicycles, antiseptics, postage stamps, sewing machines, Morse code, and rubber tires that we don't stop there. There are a few more. 50 matches, pasteurization, underground railways, postage stamps, electric, Trump's, motor cars, comic books get invention that X-rays electric power stations which use fast-flowing water. Just imagine life with ICT. A few of those things. 67. The Victorians & the British Empire: The Victorian Age was known as the Age of Empire in many ways. And we're going to talk a little bit about that in this video. You can see here a map of the British Empire, Abbott zenith in 1901, the year that Queen Victoria died, it covered a quarter of the world's land mass and also a quarter of its population. You can see how widely flung is. In fact, the sand came about, but the sun never set on the British Empire, which was factually true. When Victoria came to the throne in 1837, the British Empire was a loose collection of colonies, possessions and protect rights that had been acquired for reasons of tread, often by bodies such as the East India Company. By her death in 1901, the British Empire was a coherent and dominant economic and political entity. Queen Victoria was head of state of nearly a quarter of the population of the world. Actually the British Empire was the largest empire the world has ever seen. It came to be sad, but the sun never sets on the British Empire, as I mentioned before. And that was true because it reached into North America, the Caribbean, Africa, the Indian sub-continent. The antibodies. Professor Sarah Richardson of the University of Warwick tells us that by the end of the 19th century, Britain's existing Empire had expanded beyond recognition. And colonization had become a moral mission to share and spread British values across the globe. The Industrial Revolution, how to huge impact on the empire, Britain lad the world of manufacturing and wanted to develop markets for US goods, unsecure raw materials from abroad. The expansion of the empire therefore went hand in hand with the expansion of the economy. Return for raw materials and labor. Britain provided its technological know-how, for example, railways. It also provided Madison on education, but the education provided Kim with the teaching of British values and culture. Religious missionaries often Ron, skills, movement of people and goods was actually quite complex throughout the empire. British people worked abroad as civil engineers and missionaries and in the armed forces on people from Britain's colonies came to Britain to visit, study on, to work. Goods that came to Britain include jute, calico, cotton and T. Having defeated France and the Napoleonic Wars and 1815, Britain's Empire was unrivaled by other European imperial powers. There was very little conflict between the great powers of Europe until the First World War in 1914. The period from 1815 to 1914 became known as the Pax Britannica british piece. There was much violence involved and the expansion of the empire, including the Indian mutiny of 1857 to 59, the mourned by rebellion and Jamaica and 1865, the Opium Wars and China in 1839 to 421856 to 60, and the Tara Nike war and New Zealand in 1860 to 1861. India was central to the wealth and status of the empire from 1870 to 1914, aggressive expansion was assisted by new technologies such as railways and telegrams. Britain took over large swaths of Africa, including Egypt, Sudan, on Kenya. This period, anti-colonial movements emerged demanding freedom for British control and India and elsewhere and the empire. These eventually achieved decolonization after the Second World War. Those living in colonies have few political rights. They didn't have the ability as regions to determine their own futures. The Caribbean, the legacy of slavery upon which has economy had developed, was ever present and access to education was limited, especially third level education. Those wishing to enter higher education to become say, doctors, nurses, or engineer's, how to travel to Britain or the USA. Others traveled abroad to find work. Due to these conditions and lack of opportunity at home and number of Caribbean individuals and organizations began to campaign against colonialism. One such individual was Henry Sylvester Williams. He was a barbarian Trinidadian law student and he had traveled to Britain in the late 19th and early 20th century. London. He met others from the Caribbean and Africa. And he was particularly impressed by political Alice can look, who was a South African who traveled throughout Britain to speak about the oppression of South Africans. What gets in his friends realized that the issues facing people in both the Caribbean and African colonies were actually quite similar. In 1897, William is formed the African Association in London with Ken lock, assets, treasurer the association, and to unite people of African descent, make the public aware of the issues they faced. Hopefully forcing the government to make changes. In a way they're slightly the forerunner of the Black Lives Matter movement. One of them is also gotten touch with African Americans, such as Booker T Washington and WEB Dubois. The first palm African Conference was held in London and 1900's to try to find solutions to the problems that were faced by Africans in Africa and those of African descent and the Caribbean. The press and the Caribbean reported on the conference and Williams turned the rage in the next year to establish Pan African groups. The association also published the short-lived journal Pan Africa. Williams later became a member of the Liberal Party and became a counselor and the London Borough of Marla bone, other groups did emerge at the same time with the same kind of AMS, including the Society for peoples of African origin on the African Progress Union, which was established in 1980's. The India was a really key part of the empire. The Indian mutiny took place from the 10th of May, 1857 to the eighth of July. It teams 59. It's also known as the CPO mutiny. The first war of independence night I'm referring to it as the Indian Mutiny because this is a British history course. That's the name from the British perspective, oxidative refer to it as the first Indian War of Independence within the context of world history is probably a little bit more accurate. A big Anna, Merit, we'll start by say boys who were Indian troops in the service of the British East India Company. It spread to Delhi, Agra, camper and Lucknow. British power might say, or the belief and the right of the British to dominant political, economic, and cultural spheres have been introduced in India in 1820, the British usurped Hindu princely states under subsidiary alliances with Britain. So you made the lines of Britain before you knew it, you'd lost yourself in. The Indian aristocracy was increasingly replaced with British officials. The doctrine of laps began with Laura doll has say an 18 forties. It prevented Hindu rulers with no offspring is airs from appointing successor. When the ruler died or abdicated, their labs were annexed. Many brahmins who were members of the highest Hindu caste had lost their revenue and positions and so they were becoming increasingly discontented. Many Hindus were concerned at the fast pace of westernization with missionaries challenging Hindu beliefs and India. And that's not just a byte, the religious structure of society. It's to do with an external foreign force challenging the traditional fabric and social structures. Laura Tallahassee, who was Governor General of India from 184856, and produced a bell to remove legal obstacles which prevents a Hindu but Windows from re-marketing with a standard aim of contributing to the amounts oppression of women. Those who had converted to Christianity, where to share a family estates with their Hindu relative. The perception that the British and break die the caste system was rife. Western education challenged both Hindu and Muslim orthodoxy. Indians were only organized within the military sphere. And so the mutant he broke out and the bandgap army. The stated reason for the mute tonight was the use of the end failed rifle. In order to use it, the boys had to bite off the heads of cartridges, which were widely believed to contain the blood of pigs and cars, and consuming or putting those in your mouth as prohibited to Muslims and Hindus. They were basically being asked to do something that was against their consciousness and their perception. It's unclear if these substances were actually used, but the rumor came from the belief that the British were trying to undermine the traditions of Indian society. The British have not taken seaboard discontents seriously enough. In late March, 1857, the seat boy band gap handy attacks British officers at the Garrison and Barak poor. He was arrested and he was executed in early April. Later that month. See poison, marriage, refuse to use Add Field cartridges are given long prison terms. They were also factored. This was quite a harsh punishment. And so their comrades rose on the 10th of May and shot their British officers. They then March to Delhi where there were no European trips. On the daily CPO is joined the merit see boys, I'm not stored the age of Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah, the second to par. The mutant is spread throughout Northern India. The only prominent Indian princess to join the mutiny where the Mughal emperor and his sons, and then as I hate the adopted son of the deposed Morocco passwords, the British divided their efforts to suppress the mutilate into three parts, struggles in deli, counter and luck night during the summer of 1857. Operations around luck night and the winter of 1857 to it, the so-called mopping up undertaken by Sir Hugh rows and early 1858, pace was declared on the 8th of July, IT team 59. The conflict had been very bloody on both sides. On many civilians, including women and children, had died during the unrest. The sea boys had shocked many British officers on the punishment meted out after the uprising was severe. Hundreds of sea ports were banned, added, or fired from cannons. Some British officers actually protested at the extreme level of violence. After the mutiny, the East India Company was abolished on direct rule by the British government began. There was a financial crisis following the mutiny, which led to a reorganization of the finances of the Indiana administration. Also after the mutiny, consultation with Indians over policy was initiated cast the British realized that they had not kept an eye on Indian failing closely enough. The Legislative Council of 1853 contained only European members on it behaved like a parliament. The new council of 1861 included some Andean nominees, but it's not a full democracy or anything. British imposed social measures challenging Hinduism came to an end. The exclusion of the West from NDF looked hopeless after the mutiny, asked traditional leaders have not supported, for the most part as pseudo Western costs system group, which much like that of Britain itself, favorite the middle classes. We talked a little bit about the Commonwealth in our previous video on the British Empire. Let's hear a little bit more about it. And I, the British empire declined with the economic problems Breton and contract after two world wars and Indian independence in 1947. Queen Elizabeth the Second, the current to have a commonwealth seven her address to Canada or Dominion Day in 1959, that the Confederation of Canada on the 1st of July at 1067. So the first independent country within the British Empire. So it also marks the beginning of that free association of independent states, which is now known as the Commonwealth of Nations. Another debt accepted as the beginning of a commonwealth is the 19th of November, 1926. The debt of the ball for decoration at the Conference of the British Empire was declared its states and dominions to be autonomous. Today, the Commonwealth has 54 member states. The commonwealth secretary that works on intergovernmental initiatives, while the Commonwealth Foundation works on non-governmental relationships between member states, there are movements and several member states to replace the British monarch as head of state. 68. Christmas in the UK : Queen Victoria gave us the tradition of the white wedding dress. The tradition that Prince Albert gave us that as well and truly alive today is the Christmas tree. Because Christmas trees were used in his native Germany. The Victorians were very into the concept of Christmas. They like to go to a Christmas party. I thought I would talk in this section a little bit about the history of Christmas and other winter festivals in the UK, which actually goes all the way back to the Neolithic period. Christmas, as we know as the celebration of the birth of Christ, as in Christ's mass. And it takes place all over the world. And high are certain countries celebrates. That festival tells you a lot about those people at which is why I've chosen to talk about it. The first recorded Christmas celebration was in Rome on December 25th, AD 336. Not some people believe that when the Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity, that they just took a pre-existing festival, Andre ****** at Christmas. That's not entirely accurate, actually the English, So there, there wasn't a concept of England at that time, it was different kingdoms, but the English were lit to the Christmas party, so to speak. Other, they're hot Bain. Other mid-winter celebrations that are quite common before Christianity came to the UK as we're a bite to hear. The tallest stone at Stonehenge suggests that December the 21st, the winter solstice was very important to the Neolithic. People. Ask the stone lines up with the sunrise on that day, as you can see beautifully pictured below. Once we count entirely recreate a Neolithic celebration because it's before written records. We do know that they eat a lot of pork and beef as well as dairy products, especially cheese and fermented milk. And they may have drug barley bear, I'm made from pottery bakers, which were quite the fashionable item and the Neolithic period, mid-winter presence might have included daggers made of bronze, which had begun to replace flint, stone and making tools and weapons. Hence, this is known as the Bronze Age. The custom of giving presence. And winter goes back a long, long way. These were possibly imported from Europe, which was more advanced and working with the metal than Britain was at the time. Party where for well-off Bronze Age revelers may have included gold, necklaces, inherit decorations, and Gould buttons on their clothes. One of our customers was to jump over log fires to encourage the sun to return. So I might be taking a light-hearted attitude towards went to festivals here. But there was a serious point in the period of history where there was no such thing as any form of hating. And they couldn't protect themselves from the elements. Winter killed a lot of people. So propitiate the gods around that time of year was seen as a pretty essential thing to try and do. They may also have sung songs played Bone flips. The concept of the Christmas carol also goes back a very long way. Roman celebrations and Britain, the Saturnalia, beginning on December the 17th, was five days of fasting, celebrating mid-winter. It honored the Titan god saturn, who is the god of planting. And he was the god that you wanted to butter up during the winter months of little food. All the usual conventions of rank were overturned during Saturnalia, slaves were served by their masters and everyone wore the conical Peleus or Cap of liberty, which was presented to slaves when they were afraid everyone was considered to be equal for those five days. And also thoughts possibly where we get the tradition of the silly Christmas hot camping with dice, which was usually a legal was actually permitted during Saturnalia. People were bright colors instead of the customer. White, bright guys bang, of course, quite expensive. So that was your best clothing. The Republic AB domestic face. Again, people exchange presence, especially malaria, which were small figures made of wax or poultry. They also give satirical presence. In other words, they took the Mickey. They gave songs on poems. It was the only time of year that slaves got time off, and they were also allowed to criticize their masters. Soldiers were served by their officers. That actually became a tradition and the British military, right the way through to the 20th century where officers were served. They enlisted man on Boxing Day as well as the bread and the Romans commonly it, they added foods that the Romans had brought to Britain, including figs, debts, pine nuts, snails, door mice. I'm Gerome, which was a pungent sauce mid from fish. Instead of the everyday bear they drank, they would have drunk imported wine and other drinks blended with honey and ******. Kind of like the predecessor to mulled wine. The medieval period, they really did Christmas in a big way. There were 12 days of Christmas from the 25th of December to January the 6th, which is known as Twelfth Night. The name Christmas in Christ's mass is fresh recorded that England's and 1038, Maddie able Christmas adopted the Roman customs of gift-giving on row swapping between servers and masters. And also fall at some traditions from the Scandinavian mid-winter faced of you, such as the Yule Log, which is not a chocolate thing for Marks and Spencer's, I was an actual log which was kept burning through the season. Horses were decorated with evergreens, not quite Christmas trees as we know them today. But this idea of the average grain, of course, that really appeals and winter because it's still alive and becomes the symbol of hope. I'm not as very much what christ was thought to represent. They faced it on richly decorated bores heads and drank bracket, which was a really strong A0 with honey and cinnamon list with Brandy. I might pass out unconscious just reading that because I'm a bit of a lightweight when it comes to drinking parties. A Lord of Misrule was appointed to oversee festivities. And actually Christopher Lee called his autobiography the Lord of Misrule. Little fact there. The Lord of Misrule could order some quite rough games to be played, including one called hot cockles, were a member of the party, was blindfolded and had to guess who had slapped them from behind. So it's a great opportunity to slap people. If the slapped person guessed correctly, the person who had given the slap, whilst the next victim. Religious devotion, of course, was also part of the celebrations on the board, of course, masses because it's Christ's mass, kings were their crimes and ceremonial attire at Christmas faced. Actually, There's a lovely description of a medieval Christmas faced and the anonymous poem, the Green Knight, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, which describes Christmas at King Arthur's Court. But it's very much based on the contemporary Christmases of the poets. Henry the second held Christmas crying, wearing and 24 places during his 34-year read. Chitter Christmases, also very big part A's cheater Christmas is also lasted for 12 days. One tradition was that on 12th Night, Baden was baked into a kick. The person who's slice of cake contained the Bay, became King of the beam. If a woman got up, she chose that. Everyone had to imitate him. If he coughed, you cough, that he got up from his chair. You get up from your chair. It must have been incredibly irritating for that person. Plays were popular over Christmas, such a Shakespeare's Twelfth Night, of course. Disguising were also popular, not quite a masque ball, but dressing up. Basically. Henry the eighth wrote a Christmas Carol. He was actually quite competent musician. He wrote a Christmas Carol called Green Grow with the holly. At his parties. Has Froude stress, is robin hoods merry man or his mercy. And you were meant to pretend not to recognize them. Elizabeth the first loved to dance at Christmas on how to dancing chamber at Kenilworth castle. Popular Christmas dance was known as the cushion dots. Man plays the cushion in front of a lady they wanted to dance with, and she was obliged to kiss them on, on joined the dance. Rich tutors loved sugar, which was a very expensive commodity. In fact, having a lot of sugary dishes was equivalent to completely covering your home and gold. They sweetened their wine and also held Christmas sugar bind quotes, which incorporated sugar models of capitals, drug gets on Holly. Some goblet cells were made of sugar, so you drank the drink of that it, the goblet. Elizabeth, the first taste tart black due to her sugar consumption presence for given on New Year's Day. At that period in history, the queen expected to be given expensive gifts and she actually recorded the value of the gift she received. She famously gave her father and her stepmother, Catherine Parr translation. She had done herself for New Year when she was a little girl. Suppose during the Commonwealth of England, what can I say? Chrome? Well bounded and he bowed lot of things and he did a lot of harsh things. But when he found Christmas, that was a step too far. And there were pro Christmas riots. Charles the second reinstated Christmas and it's now known as the partaking Victorian Christmases, actually fairly close to the way we celebrate Christmas today. If you do celebrate Christmas today, during the Victorian period, Christmas became a family festival. It's more of a domestic thing that a public thing. That's a bit last rock. Queen Victoria at especially Prince Albert, along with their children, contributed towards changes and tradition, which I'd say is high. We celebrate Christmas today. Albert introduced Christmas trees the United Kingdom in 1840, as they had been part of Christmas celebrations and his net of Germany. And as we said before, the royal family in this period were meant to be like a template for domestic life. Prince Albert introduces the Christmas tree, there's one and Buckingham Palace. And suddenly everybody's got to happen. They became very popular and were decorated with lights on present. Neither presence were given on Christmas day instead of New Year's Day, Victorian children got modest presence like oranges, sweets, and nuts. Unless they were welfare. And they might get a toy that was sort of tied to the new technology like a model trends, Christmas box tips to serve as a transmitter, little presence of money that you made up for them. We're given on the 26th of December, the day after Christmas, which became known as Boxing Day in the UK. Christmas cards, Christmas crackers, eating turkey instead of gifts at Christmas pudding. All originated with the Victorians. Santa Claus, who had started his gift-giving career in America, first came to the UK and the IT team seven days. Most victorian families went to charge at Christmas, and some of the most famous Christmas carols were written in this period, including good cake and wide. So it's less Watson Road, David said the ad outcome or you fitful. After the publication of Charles Dickens, a Christmas Carol and 1843, tradition began of affluent individuals getting gifts to PER families and giving gifts to charity or donations to charity at Christmas is still a tradition for some people today. Now you've heard about Christmas in the UK throughout the edges, you can decide which kind of Christmas party you would most like to attend. 69. Outbreak of the First World War : The First World War, which lasted from 1914 until 1918, was one of the bloodiest periods and world history for horrifying years that completely changed the face of Europe and other parts of the world. In this video, we're going to give a little overview of the conflict and talk about Hyatt started. Now, the origins of the First World War are famously very complex to understand. I'm hoping in this video, but it's been broken down to be quite straightforward. And I've put some resources apart. Best topic in the notes. The First World War as also referred to as the Great War, world War I. I'm quite sadly the war to end all wars which of course didn't turn out to be. It was fought from the 20th of July, 1914 until the 11th of November 1918. It was fought in Europe, Africa, the Middle East, the Pacific Islands, China, the Indian Ocean, on the North on-site Atlantic. It was very much a World War. New countries reformed in Europe and the Middle East after the war. But here a little bit about that later, I'm German colonies were transferred to other European pars when the war ended, the Austro-Hungarian Empire walls dissolved in the wake of the First World War and the Russian Empire collapsed after the revolutions of 19171923. The grid war causes and consequences. At the start of the 20th century, the grid parts of Europe were divided into two main blocks. The Triple Entente, which was France, Russia, and Britain, and the Triple Alliance, which was made up of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. On the 28th of June, 1914, the heir apparent of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, was assassinated by the Bosnian Serb Cabrillo princess. Latin unsuccessful series of diplomatic talks known as the July crisis. And well sort of aimed at avoiding war, since Hungary blend Serbia for the murder. All the 28th of July, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. And on the fourth of August, Russia joined the fray to defend Serbia. And that kicked in this system of alliances. And soon Germany, France, and Britain were involved in the conflict, bringing their empires with them, hence it became a world war. The ultimate empire, Germany and Austria, forms the central parts. And November 19141915, Italy joined Britain, France and Russia, as well as Serbia, and created the Allied Powers. Germany faced a war on two fronts. It came up with the so-called Schlieffen plan after filled marginal Alfred Von Schlieffen, which was to defeat France and then move east to engage with Russia. They're advanced into France failed, and the two sides first each other on the western front at the end of 1914, the German army had opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium, became unimportant battle area throughout the war. It was a continuous series of trench lines which stretched from the English Channel to Switzerland. Prompt changed very little until 1917. The Eastern Front, whoever was more fluid and changed quite a lot. It included the entire frontier between the Russian Empire and Romania on one side, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire, and the German Empire on the other. And it's shifted as Russia and Austria-Hungary gained and lost territory at various points. Major theaters of war also included the Middle East, the Alpine front of the Balkans, which brought Bulgaria, Romania and grace into the war. The allied naval blockade created shortages germinate, which consequently began submarine warfare in 1917. Not true the United States of America and to the war on the side of the allies on the sixth of April 1917, the October Revolution in Russia in 1917 brought the Bolsheviks and depart. They made pace and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, March 1918, which freed up a large number of German troops who were transferred to the Western Front. The Germans launched the March 1918 Spring Offensive, hoping to win a victory at the Western Front before the Americans could arrive. They were initially successful, but their progress stopped you to have a loss. As August 1918, the Allies began the 100 Days Offensive and the Germans were unable to help their advance. The Central Powers began to collapse. By the end of 1918, Bulgaria signed an armistice on the 30th of September. The Ottomans followed on the 31st of October, Austria-Hungary signed on the 3rd of November. This brought the fighting to a close. The 1980's in Paris Peace Conference and posed settlements on the defeated nations. The most famous being the Treaty of Versailles. The Treaty of Versailles humiliated Germany and it opened the door for hyperinfection and hyper nationalism, the very far right policies of people like Adolf Hitler that led to the outbreak of the Second World War. The face of Europe changed with the dissolution of the Russian, German, ottoman, and Austro-Hungarian Empires after the First World War, which lead to uprisings and the creation of independent states. And these included Poland, czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia. The instability that was created under humiliating terms of the Treaty of Versailles paved the way for the Second World War, as we've already mentioned. Let's talk a little bit more detail about how the war started. Bosnia and Herzegovina having annex to the Austro-Hungarian Empire. And all my 28th of June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, who was heir presumptive to Emperor Franz Joseph, visited Sarajevo, the capital of the provinces. Six assassins from a movement known as Young Bosnia. Bosnia, took up positions along the rate of his motorcade with the intention of assassinating him. They had been armed by an organization known as the Black Hand, a secret intelligence organization formed by members of the Serbian army in 1901. They intended to liberate Bosnia from row by Austria-Hungary. They haven't made plans about what kind of administration would replace it. Grenade was thrown at the Archduke scar, which injured two of his kids who were taken to hospital. But the convoy kept moving. Other Assassins aimed at the Arctic but missed. His car, unfortunately took a wrong turn and ended up on the street work of or low princeps was positioned. He fired to pistol shots. One of the Archduke and one of his wife Sophie. The Archduke was killed instantly and Sophie died shortly afterwards. Emperor Franz Joseph hadn't been close to his son, but he was nonetheless very, very shocked as far as reported comment on the shading which was presumably met while he was in that state of shock was higher PAR has re-established the order which I alas could not preserve. The check historian Z examine reports that the shading wasn't really major news in Vienna, people just went to buy their business and the public didn't particularly react to the assassination. But it was high ever politically a very important event, as the historian Christopher Clark asserts, it was a 911 effect, a terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry and Vienna. The Austro-Hungarian authorities encouraged antiserum riots and Sarajevo, in the wake of the assassination, Bosnian Croats and Wozniak's kill to Bosnian Serbs and Serb owned buildings were damaged. There was violence against ethnic Serbs outside Sarajevo and other Austro-Hungarian controlled cities. About 5,500 prominent Serbs were extradited. 702,200 of them dies and present, and another 460 were sentenced to death. The most Pete Bosniak special militia near the shots corpse prosecuted Serbs. A month long series of diplomatic talks followed known as the July crisis. And those were between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France, and Britain. The Austrians believe that Serbian intelligence was responsible for the death of the Arctic. And they wanted to, and intelligences, operations and Serbia, they believed the war was the best way of achieving this end. They hadn't any proof of Serbian involvement in the murder. And the dossier they provided was riddled with errors. Australia delivered on ultimatum to Serbia on the 23rd of July, 1914 with ten demands which they thought the Serbs would never a great implement and they thought this would initiate a war. Serbia agreed the terms, except those giving Austria-Hungary the power to suppress so-called subversive elements in Serbia. And to be involved in the investigation on trial of those implicated in the assassination of the Archduke. Even so, Serbia order general mobilization on the 25th of July. In other words, they're getting their armed forces ready. Austria-hungary interpreted this as a rejection of the ultimatum. I'm broke off diplomatic relations. Partial mobilization was ordered on the 26th of July. War was declared on the 28th of July and the sharing of Belgrade began. Russia or two general mobilization to support Serbia. On the 30th of July. On the 31st of July, the Russian Government received a note demanding that they cease all war measures against Germany and Austria-Hungary within 12 hours. The Germans demanded that the French declared neutrality. They responded by ordering general mobilization, but they didn't yet declare war. The Germans then faced war on two fronts and formulated the Schlieffen plan, planning to send 80% of the army to advanced France, I'm Ben attack Russia. Mobilization orders were issued that afternoon as they needed to move fast. The British Cabinet met on the 29th of July and came to the conclusion that its obligations under the 1890s Treaty of London tech not require Britain to oppose a German invasion using military intervention. This was largely because prime minister Herbert Henry asked whether they wanted to maintain unity, but senior cabinet ministers wish to support fronts. The Royal Navy had already mobilized and public opinion favorite military intervention. Britain sent notes to Germany and France on the 31st of July asking them to respect Belgian neutrality. France agreed to do so, and Germany did not reply. Germany and Russia were at war on the 1st of August. Kaiser Wilhelm the second was told by his ambassador in London, principally Panofsky, that Britain would remain neutral as long as France was not attached, but of course, attacking France was the first component of the Schlieffen plan. He also felt the British would spend their resources on the home row crisis that was happening in Ireland. The Kaiser was lit at an ordered his Chief of Staff, general bulk KOH, to march the whole of the army to the east. Moltke protested. He thought it just couldn't be done. Sad, the deployment of millions cannot be improvised. And economic scheme realized that the information that he had given how Bain mistaken, and a telegram to the Kaiser from his cousin George the Fifth, confirmed the information walls and accurate. Vilhelm told Walt cut to do whatever you want. The French commander in chief, Joseph genre, was aware of German plans to attack France via Belgium. He asked for permission to cross the border on preamp the attack, but was told he could only advance across the border. And the event of a German envision, as Francis promised to respect Belgium neutrality, Germany occupied Luxembourg on the second of August, and there was exchange of fire between the French and the Germans. Germany declared war on France on the 3rd of August, anti-matter free passage across Belgium. This was refused. Early in the morning. On the 4th of August, the Germans invaded and Albert, the first of Belgium, code for Britain's assistance under the Treaty of London. Britain said Germany and ultimatum demanding that withdrawal from Belgium, it expired at midnight with item response on the British and German empires were at war. 70. Life in the Trenches : We've seen high-technology advanced in the Victorian age. And we're going to talk in this video about high advances in technology, impact on warfare and on the people who were fighting and wars. We're also going to talk about the propaganda machine that lead people to want to sign up for the war in the first place. For all we have on our for all our children's fit, stand up and take the war. The hum is that the get? And this is a poem by Rudyard Kipling, who was known as the soldiers poet tape is give them that nearby Lord derby, he had won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1907 on was a very respected British writer. Today, his work somewhat stands for the concept of empire. This was published in the Times on the 3rd of September 1914. The Hun is at the get the sense of threat, the sense that it was your job to protect your country. And other similar messages about the war were widely disseminated. British's urinated come across guy, who's absent, is it you? And this sets of not going to work with something to be really ashamed off was widely disseminated. If you weren't going toward, you were doing your beds. If you were a man of fighting edge and you would've been looked down on by your community. This is the other side of the coin when it comes to war poetry. The First World War became famous for its poets who described and very graphic detail what was really going on for the soldiers. This is one of the most famous war poets do chat decorum asked by Wilfred Owen. But double like old beggars under sacks, knock, need coughing like hikes. We cursed through sludge on the haunting flares. We turned our backs and towards our distant rest becomes a trench. Men marched asleep. Man, he had lost their boots but limped on bloodshot. All went lame, all blind, drunk with fatigue, death, even to the hoots of gas shells dropping softly behind Gas, Gas quick boys and ecstasy of fumbling, fitting the clumsy helmets just in time. But someone was still yelling out and stumbling and flying drink like a man in fire or lime. Dim through the misty pants and thick green light as under a green sea. I saw him drowning. In all my dreams before my helpless sight, he plunges at me, guttering, choking, driving. If in some smothering dreams U2 could pierce behind the wagon that we flung him in and watch the white eyes writhing in his face, his hanging fairs like a devil's sick of sin. If you could hear at every joke, the blood can gurgling from the froth corrupted lungs, obscene as cancer better as the card, a vile, incurable sores on innocent tongues. My friend, you would not tell with such high zest to children ardent for some desperate glory, the old lie, don't cheat at decorum est Pro Patria Mori. That last phrase means it has a sweet and noble thing to die for one's country. And it comes from a poem by Horace, the Roman poet. You can see the line and all my drains before my helpless sight. That very much reflects the experience of what we would now call Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, which during the First World War was referred to as shell shock. That what the soldiers saw was so traumatic, but they have flashbacks when they returned home for years. And unfortunately, they weren't treated very well because of the trauma they had suffered. They were known as nervous Nellie, and it was associated with feminism and cowardice. This is also of course, a very graphic depiction of a new technology, poisoned gas, which was used in the trenches and then warfare. Let's talk a little bit more about propaganda and the First World War. This is the very famous poster off Lord Kitchener, who apparently wants you. If you can imagine, a few were fighting edge man and you were walking along the street. He's both looking at you and pointing out you, making you feel that you have your bit to play. Propaganda used in the recruitment drive placed emphasis on atrocities to friend public opinion against the central parts, specifically germinate. When the war broke out, government departments began organizing their own propaganda with no central coordination. An organization to overstay public messages was established at Wellington highest under the liberal politician Charles Masterman. But that didn't stop the independent propaganda of various agencies. Activities were not centralized under the Ministry of information until 1918. After the war ended, some commentators such as Politician on writer arthropods and be exposed some of the atrocity propaganda as false, which led to reluctance to believe the reports of atrocities by the Nazis during the Second World War, adult Hitler and other split the British propaganda was a key component and the allied victory and the First World War, the Nazis actually adopted British methods. And the Second World War, the initial establishment of a British propaganda agency was in response to propaganda produced by Germany. The agencies work was mostly carried out in secret and Parliament was not kept informed of it. The Wellington highest agency was the key propaganda unit until 1916, focused on propaganda to the USA, but with divisions for other countries. So propaganda focused on recruitment a lot, but also on the wider war effort and trying to get other countries involved. The second of September 1914, Masterman invited 25 leading authors to Wellington highs to discuss how to communicate messages and Britons and trust in the war. So professional writers, respected writers such as Rudyard Kipling. Several agreed to write pamphlets and books endorsing the government's view to other organizations were formed alongside Wellington heist, the neutral press commits a supplied the press and neutral countries with information regarding the war. The Foreign Office news departments supply the foreign press and all countries with official statements on British foreign policy. Voluntary organizations also engaged in their own propaganda, sometimes creating tension with Wellington highs. If you can imagine this, propaganda hasn't quite centralized. Jet and a lot of different agencies, both in the government and voluntary agencies are producing propaganda. The population becomes pretty much flooded with propaganda. Propaganda efforts were finally centralized under the Foreign Office after a conference in 1916, when David Lloyd George became prime minister, he reorganized propaganda machinery again. He ordered a report and to propaganda which highlighted it's disorganized nature and decided to set up a department of state over say it. The novelist, historian and politician John Buchanan was put in charge of the new body. And February 1917, the department was named the Ministry of Information. I was running under the auspices of the Foreign Office. The department was criticized and Buchanan was placed under the command of fellow Irish Unionist sir Edward Carson until the report was produced later that year. Criticisms of propaganda production grew. And when Carson resigned from the War Cabinet in 1918, it was decided anew administrate would be formed. Lord Beaverbrook, that Canadian British newspaper publisher, it was put in charge of establishing it. It took over all propaganda activities for the 4th of March, 1918, encoding domestic, foreign and military propaganda. And other organization was set up to oversee propaganda and anime countries which reported directly to the war cabinet. Beaverbrook became ill and October and his deputy Arnold Bennett, English author and novelist ladder ministry for the final weeks of the war, right? Throughout the war, propaganda as a very big component of fighting the war. Propaganda machinery was dissolved after the war. All methods used by British propaganda during the war centered on the need for credibility. Leaflets were the biggest form of literature distributed and we're given I and foreign countries. They were quite academic and tone. The idea was that they were there to inform you if you were reading the leaflet distribution of leaflets abroad by Wellington highest increase from 2.5 million and June 1915 to 7 million in February 1916. Paper shortage caused administrative information to reduce leaflet production and focus on other forms of propaganda. Other forms of literature that were used included books, official publications, ministerial speeches on royal messages. These were targeted at influential individuals such as politicians and journalists, rather than at a mass audience. The neutral press committee and the foreign office sought coverage of their propaganda. And the foreign press. Telegraph agencies have been established in Bucharest, Romania, bow and span, and Amsterdam in the Netherlands to facilitate the spread of information. So this is how new technology that was coming into play was used in wartime. Wellington highest produced a newspaper and several languages are made use of pictorial propaganda. Cinema became a form of propaganda at the outbreak of the conflict. The war offers vetoed the use of cinema, but permitted Wellington highs to use the medium. In 1915, a cinema committee was formed to produce and distribute films to the allies and neutral countries. The first film they made was called Britain prepared and December 1915, military fetish was used to suggest Britain strength in the fatigability. The August 1916 Battle of the Somme was received favorably with audiences. The most recognizable form of propaganda from World War I wanted today is arguably recruitment posters. Recruitment was a central theme of domestic propaganda until conscription was introduced in January 1916, patriotism was a key theme and the message was communicated. The individuals were expected to do their fair share. The Lord Kitchener wants you posters are notable example of this. Lord Kitchener was Secretary of State for war. Recruitment posters also played on atrocity propaganda and fear of invasion, such as the remember Scarborough campaign which records the 1980's attack on Scarborough. You can see it pictured here to the right, the goddess and the picture is Britannia, herself coming under attack. Paintings also conveyed propaganda. One example is pictured here, the grid sacrificed by James Clark in 1914, which was the souvenir print used by the newspaper, the graphic and it's Christmas 1914 issue. It showed a young soldier lying dead on the battlefield beneath the vision of Christ and was popular in churches, mission halls on skills. The original painting came into the possession of Queen Mary, who was the wife of George the Fifth others, several copies were made. Clark also painted the bombardment of the Hartley pose on the 16th of December, 1914. And his work was used as the basis for several charge stained glass window war memorials. Atrocity propaganda reached its peak in 1915 with many of the atrocities depicted relating to Germany's invasion of Belgium. Newspaper reports which covered these events for us to use the term Han as a pejorative term for German soldiers. A stream of stories was published, some exaggerated or fabricated, which depicted the Germans as too radical and barbaric. The German Kaiser often appeared in British propaganda as a dangerous troublemaker. He actually had English bloods as he was the grandson of Queen Victoria. You'll remember. He came to personify German atrocities and by 1919, the British press called for his execution. He died in exile in 1941, The Press having forgotten him with Hitler becoming the face of animatable Germany. The Bryce report or the report of the committee or the alleged German ICT ridges. What's the most disseminated atrocity propaganda? It was published in May 1915 and based on 1200 witness statements, realistic systematic murder on other atrocities against Belgians, including rib during the German invasion of Belgium. James Bryce. Bryce was a former ambassador and respected authority on law and governments. So this idea of credibility is reinforced by choosing him to front the report. The report had major impact in Britain. I made the front page of newspapers and America as well. It was translated into 30 languages and distributed and allied and neutral countries. Germany contradict with the white book, also known as the illegal leadership of the Belgium People's War, which described alleged atrocities carried out by Belgium's against German soldiers. Its impact was limited and some interpreted it as an admission of guilt. Edith Cavell was a nursery helps both allied and German prisoners of war to escape. She added 200 allied prisoners to escape the Germans and was court-martialed by the Germans for treason and subsequently executed. Her story was used by British propagandists and presented as murder soon afterwards to German nurses who had facilitated the escape of German prisoners of war were shot dead by the French. But the Germans did not use the story as propaganda. Propaganda and recruitment basically, did it work dead? The propaganda that was being put out there actually cause people to sign up for the war. Well, propaganda posters which seemed to point directly to the viewer, consolidated the feelings of horror, fear, and gt that the propaganda machine had propagated. 54 million posters were issued and 12 thousand meetings were held. 20 thousand speeches were given by army spokesman during the first weekend of the war. Man today signed up. By the end of 19141,186,337 man had enlisted. Men aged 15 to 41, couldn't list. There was some teenagers lied about their edges in order to go to war. The upper age limit was increased to 51 in April 1918. Conscription was introduced in 1916. Paul's battalions were created based on an idea by Lord Darby that France and relations could enlist unserved together to keep each other's spirits up. Some young men saw the war as almost an adventure with their friends. One of those young man actually was my great grandfather, whose story you're going to hear a little bit later. A famous group in this fan where the Akron certain piles, 700 men from ligature from occurring ton of course, when they left for the war, 15 thousand times, people saw them off. On the 1st of July, 1916 at the Battle of the Somme, 235 acronyms and piles were killed and over 350 of them were wounded. Several families and Akron gotten lost every male member of the family. Nonetheless, there was a huge social pressure on fighting age man to go to war, or they were called cowards are seen as letting the side done. What about people who didn't want to go to work? Well, there were about 16 thighs and conscientious objectors who chose not to go to war for moral, political, or religious reasons. Some were permitted to do other work towards the war effort, such as farming or carrying stretchers, which didn't involve killing people. The editor of the labor later, fan or walkway, founded the no conscription fellowship and late 1914. And he said names Putin of a young man who would refuse to fight in the war. The interesting thing was that it was not only young socialists, it was young religious people, most of the young Quakers, but others as well, Methodists, primitive Methodists. As all these names port in, those had been most active and bringing them together form themselves into an ad hoc committee under the chairmanship of Clifford Allen. This fellowship campaign for a conscience clause and the Military Service Act, which was the act that required man to unlist. It gave exemption to some on the grounds of conscience. One such individual was Howard hold him who was a quicker and didn't wish to fight in a war. He recalled, I had to put my name down as a conscientious objector in some way. I'm not quite sure of the details as to how that was done. But I was notified that therapy or public hearing similar to a Magistrates Court. But the local solicitor had been appointed an Army officer and he was an effect, as you might say, prosecuting on a kind of the army. The tribunal who I think must have all, or most of them being local magistrates, decided in their wisdom that this bloke might as well be exempted provided he did useful work. But in some cases it might've been that the tribunal was more rigorous than mine walls because I'd been known locally, I'd lived in that village for 18 months. She say a big time. I can quite imagine that all the young fellows that came up before them were strangers. What the tribunals had to decide was, is this chap genuine or essence? In my case, they decided I was. Tribunals were generally and sympathetic towards conscientious objectors and most were refused the exemption. Conscientious objector, Eric, that we live his experience. I stayed up that I was a CEO and they said, Well then I would have to go before a military tribunal who would assess me and see if they thought I was a genuine CEO. And I had to appear before them and they put me through the usual sorts of questions that these tribunals did. They had certain routine questions, a favorite one, walls, what would you do if your sister was threatened with RIP by some German soldier or something like that? I can't quite remember what I answered, but it was to the effect that that had nothing to do with being a CEO against the war. I think that I said that I didn't know what I would do and that it didn't matter in the present context and the least what I would do, the thing was this was a protest against the war, but the war was wrong. If the exemption was refused, the applicant was recruited into the army. 6 thousand of these notice absolutists refuse to obey the orders. George Dutch refused to put on an army uniform. They stripped me of my own clothing and put the uniform dye beside me and said, No, you've got to put it on. I said, Well, I will not put it on. Alright, you've got to sit there. I sat there for a day or two and the whole camp was interested. Everybody knew what was going on. Soldiers used to come and say, Go on, stick it boys ticket, if it kills you, the manager was very much disliked. And I can understand that. I can see what type of person he was. He must have noticed it because after they are to suddenly my tent was taken up and taken right up on top of the cliff overlooking the sea. This was in November and it was pretty cold, misty weather and I was taken up there and my uniform put beside me again by the tempo. And just to make things worse than ever, they wrote the tent walls up so that the wind came right into the tent. All Ron's and I could sit there and phrase which I did. And the orders with no one was to come near me until I dressed and Kim done. Well, I didn't dress and I didn't go down. I stayed there and I'm not quite sure how long it was, but I think it must have been at least ten days and nights and just my singular and pants and sucks, just sitting there like that and the 10th and before I'd been there many r's I was frozen right through with exposure that I didn't feel a lot. I was just insensitive. I just sat there day and night, just set my teeth to stick whatever came. Then suddenly a whole group of them turned up, the medical officer, the doctor and the ansi OS and it put me up there and wrote the tank walls up. The doctor was very angry. He said to his men, getting down to the 10th darn to the medical tent. Those who refuse to adhere to army discipline where court-martialed. Thomas painting was an instructor in firearms with the king's royal rifle corps and 1960s. This is what he tells us. While the party was firing on the range, the instructor reported me there's a rifle men refuse to load his rifle on conscientious grinds. I reported to the officer who told me to give the rifle been a direct order and load, the instructor was to be present as a witness. The rifle man replied, I object on conscientious grinds. I explained the seriousness of not complying with an order and gave him a direct order, three direct orders which he refused to obey are reported to the officer who taught me to escort the rifle them to the garden room and play as him and close arrest. The rifle man was tried by court martial, acquitted his defense. I have a conscientious objection to taking life. He was killed as a stretcher bearer during his GED bringing in the window, he wouldn't take life, but he try and save life. 6 thousand objectives were imprisoned. They were given monotonous work on a per diet whilst in present. Just to let you know that the information on quotations in this section of the video are taken from the Imperial War Museum, voices of the First World War site. I really highly recommend as it has some fascinating insight into the First World War from the people who were actually there. Man who simply had not signed up. We're presented with white feathers and the straight assemble of car does and humiliating the recipient. The high number of deaths meant that the recruitment campaign carried on throughout the war. By the end of the First World War, a quarter of all British man had served in the armed forces. What was life like in the trenches for the soldiers of the First World War, trenches were really the defining concept of the First World War. They were literally on every front. So says Alan Wakefield's head of the First World War at the Imperial War museums. They existed on the Western Front, calculate the Middle East and Africa. New war fighting technologies, methods, soldiers were exposed to unimaginable firepower. And that's according to the life and the trenches documentary by the Imperial War Museum, which I've linked to in the notes. These included machine guns, magazine rifles, shells, and lead bullets. Early trenches were like ditches, but they became more complex systems over time. There were three lines of trenches, fire trenches where the frontline where you were closest to the battle than support trenches followed by reserved trenches. These were connected by communications trenches so that materials can be conveyed between trenches without going over open ground. Open grind was to be avoided at all costs. And the First World War, because you were so likely to be hit by a shell or a bullet on open grind. Some trenches were given the dance of familiar places back in Britain's such as Gordon Ali and girly trench. Soldiers in frontline trenches, sheltered and dugouts when they could. These could be deep underground shelters or simply hollows and the side of the trench, most activity took place at night under cover of darkness on soldiers tried to rest during the day. They only got a few hours of sleep daily. The trenches were in faster by rats fading on the often unburied dead bodies. For that, see Peter Jackson's film, they shall not grow old, which is actual footage from the First World War. Don't worry, you won't see any rats eating dead bodies, but you will hear people talking about it. Flies were also a problem, especially in summer. They and faster dead bodies, latrines and food and they spread disease and the trenches. Daily life was dangerous, but it was also very monotonous. Rations were PR, and often cold and cooks were thought to be incompetent. Walter was carried in PATRIC accounts and often tested of petrol shells on snipers killed Maddie and the trenches often out of nowhere. So you could just be standing there talking to someone and that person could suddenly becomes in front of the randomness of these deaths badly impacted the mental health of the survivors. Response to this, the army rotated soldiers through the lines. And soldiers really look forward to there times behind the line where they got hot baths, clean clothes, and sleep. They also played sports, took part in amateur dramatics and got some home leave in some cases back to Britain for a time. New ideas and warfare were continuously being tested. Officers who are trained in classical techniques had to learn trench warfare. It was a whole new concept. Mouse artillery shells were fired from SAT lines with breaks and then the resumption of shelling. Poison gas was introduced, which caused the enemy soldiers to have to wear a gas masks, which limited their vision amid the response to the subsequent shelling less effective. You know what, I'm actually ashamed to come from a species that is capable of doing that. That happened on both sides of the war. By the way, tanks were introduced in 1916. They were not successful at first, but tactics were changed as the war progressed. Light machine guns or mortar fire allow the infiltrate to advance and take up positions. All this new technology came together at the Battle of Amiel in 1918. This was the largest offensive of the war in which the allies broke the trench deadlock. Open warfare resumed when the Allies pushed through the German lines on German General Ludendorff calls at the black day. Naturally the trauma associated with the First World War impact the mental health of many of the soldiers. The term shell-shock first appeared in the medical journal, The Lancet six months after the start of the First World War, captain Charles Myers at the Royal Army Medical Corps coined the phrase. It was not used by soldiers themselves. Myers had been asked to research the condition which incapacitated many soldiers at symptoms varied but included impaired hearing and vision, loss of balance, anxiety, insomnia, and headaches, speechless business, and involuntary trembling. It was his first presumed to be a consequence of physical trauma or repetitive shelling. High ever after Myers published his findings, it was observed that some soldiers display the symptoms with ICT, having experienced physical trauma. Shell shock started to be seen as a weakness or a moral failing. Man who experienced that were called cowards, both in the trenches and when they got home. From 1917, medical officers were instructed to label those showing these symptoms as not yet diagnosed nervousness and y dm, showing a move towards understanding the problem as a mental health condition. William Collins at the Royal Medical Corps described observing acute shell shock. I mean, they would just lay a gibbering idiots. I've seen this soldier laying on a stretcher gibbering like an idiot just from the shell shock being blown unconscious. He believed the victims of this condition were wake NCO Frederick Holmes was more sympathetic and his observations. We stayed the night in the building without a roof. There were four walls. There. I saw my first shell shock, kiss a fellow lion crying and shaking like an aspirin. It was pitiful really. I asked somebody what was his trouble and they said he's a shell shock kids and he was just waiting to be transported dine home. It was a terrible thing. I didn't realize it was as bad as that. I thought it was pretty terrible. But at the time I was still hot, adventurous spirit and I wasn't a fred so-called hysterical behavior. And Victorian times had been seen as a feminine traits and some sufferers of shell shock were labeled as a feminist. Treatment was therefore aimed at restoring masculinity through harsh discipline, electroshock therapy, putting out cigarettes on sufferers tongues, and burning the backs of their throats with hot plates. These methods were recommended by physicians such as Louis Island and his hysterical disorders of warfare written in 1918, 80% of those traded. We're unable to return to active service. And many developed drug and alcohol addictions such as my great grandfather, who developed an alcohol problem as a result of being in the First World War and actually died of cirrhosis of the liver. Mental health issues were stigmatized and so patients suffered on return from the war as well. Today their condition would be referred to as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Contemporary soldier from the First World War, Alfred Griffin of the king's role rifle corps recalls some of the man that had been out there a long time. There weren't many. And they had been through that Psalm battle. They were really ought to have been repatriated and put on a trend. Because we had a sergeant signal then in charge of the settlers who as soon as he got within shelling distance, he went white. And he well, the CEO didn't use to take him up when he didn't want to embarrass him too much. Simplistic gaba within the where you have got to duck from shells and that he felt like about stomach. And the stretcher bearers used to take it back, but he should have been sent back to England. He'd been through at all traveling like Lafe. He couldn't keep a limb still. But I mean, it wasn't cowardice. Fellow soldiers witnessing people display the symptoms of what would have been called shell shock then didn't think of it as cowardice all the time. They were totally sympathetic and actually witnessed it quite a lot on quite often. 306 soldiers were executed by the British for cowardice during World War II. It's widely believed that many of these may have been suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder when they were accused of carpenters or desertion, most were non-commissioned, which means that they weren't officers, they were regular soldiers, as well as British soldiers. Those executed included 25 Canadians, 22 Irishman, and five New Zealanders. At the start of this video, we heard the thoughts of Rudyard Kipling on the glories of war. And what a great thing It walls to defend your country and the world against a grid evil. Very sadly, his son John Kipling, was killed in the First World War. And Roger Kipling wrote this after his death in 1915. Have you news of my boy Jack? Not this tight. Where do you think that he'll come back? Not with this wind blowing and this tide. Has anyone else heard word of him? Not this tide for what is sunk will hardly swim dot with this wind blowing and this tied. Oh dear, what comfort can I find numbness type nor any tight. Except he did not share his kind. Not even with that wind blowing and that tide. Then hold your head up all the more this tide on every time because he was the son newborn and gave to that wind blowing and that tide. 71. Armistice : After four horrific years, how did the First World War? And, well, let's talk a little bit about the armistice. The armistice which ends at the First World War, was signed on the 11th of November, 1918. Outlive wrong polar near COPM. It's also known as the armistice. Was signed at 545 I am by the French general, Allied Supreme Commander Ferdinand ****. It added fighting on land, say, and in the air. It made pace with the last remaining central par, Germany. Previous armistice as having signed by the Allies with Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire, and Austria-Hungary. The German sends a message to the American President Woodrow Wilson to negotiate terms. The Germans surrendered at the Paris Peace Conference, which took place the next year. So they didn't surrender just after the arms does that didn't happen for another year. The armistice took effect at 11:00 AM Paris time on the 11th of November, 1918. Hence, we remember our war dead to this day on the 11th are of the 11th day of the 11th month. Most of its terms were written by Fock and included cessation of fighting on the Western Front, withdrawal of German forces from the Rhine, allied occupation of the Rhineland and bridgeheads to the preservation of infrastructure and surrender of aircrafts, warships and other military resources. Allied prisoners of war and captured civilians were also to be released. German prisoners were not released though, and there was no relaxation of the naval blockade of Germany. The armistice was extended three times while peace negotiations continued. The Treaty of Versailles was finally signed on the 28th of June, 1919 and came into effect on the tenth of January, 1920. The Germans were starting to lose. I used the term Germans rather than central pores because the rest of the Central Powers were basically falling out of the game by this point as a byte to find out, the Battle of Amiel and August 1918 resulted in a German withdrawal to the Hindenburg line on the loss of ground gained and the German Spring Offensive, the Allied advance notice the Hundred Days Offensive progressed with a huge attack by the USA in France. I'm not opened the most are gone offensive. The British threatened and giant pincer movement to the north at the San Quentin canal. The Ottoman Empire was becoming exhausted at this point, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was in a state of chaos. Resistance by the Bulgarian army on the Mediterranean front collapsed, leading to the armistice of Salonica on the 29th of September, 1918. Chronic food shortages and Germany which were caused by the Allied naval blockade. We're creating disorder within Germany. War casualties, starvation, rations and Spanish flu reduced German numbers on the available recruits were war-weary, an unsupportive of the war in many cases. The October 1918 telegrams, all the 20th of September 1918, Kaiser Wilhelm the second was informed by the Imperial Army command that the situation was hopeless. Quarter master general Erich Ludendorff claim that the front could not be held for another two hours and asked that a request be given to the allies for an immediate ceasefire. He recommended accepting the man demands of US President Woodrow Wilson. Notice the Fourteen Points which included introducing democracy and the imperial government. This would mean that Ludendorff and the army could save this as democratic parties would be blamed for the German capitulation. The liberal Prince Maximilian of bed and or bottom, was made Chancellor of Germany on the third of October 1918. And he replace Georg von hurtling in the armistice negotiations. On the 5th of October, 1918, the German government sent a message to Woodrow Wilson to negotiate terms based on the speech he had recently made in Congress and his Fourteen Points. Before negotiations can commence, Wilson demand of the Germany retreat from all occupied territories, the cessation of submarine activities and the Kaiser's abdication. On the 23rd of October. He wrote, If the government of the United States must deal with the military masters and the monarchical autocrats of Germany? No. Or if it is likely to have to deal with them later in regard to the international obligations of the German Empire, it must demand not peace negotiations, but surrender. In late October, Ludendorff changed his mind and declared that they allied terms are unacceptable. He proclaimed his intention of resuming the war. German soldiers, however, we're ready to go home on, couldn't be encouraged to fight. And the number of deserters and Christ. The imperial government replace Ludendorff with Vo him Governor. On the 5th of November. The Allies are great to prepare for a trace, but out of reparation payments to their demands. The French, British, and Italian governments were not enthusiastic about Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, which led to a five-week delay and the signing of the armistice. The words of the historian Fernand serotonin, the allied states when we're faced with a problem so far, they had considered the 14 commandments as a piece of clever and effect of American propaganda designed primarily to undermine the fighting spirit of the Central Powers and to bolster the morale of the lesser allies. Noise suddenly the whole piece structure was supposedly to be built up on that set up vague principles, most of which seemed to them thoroughly unrealistic and some of which, if they were to be seriously applied, work simply unacceptable. Let's list Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points speech to Congress. Woodrow Wilson outline 14 elements that he felt needed to be included in a pacer cohort. Number one, open covenants of peace openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international understandings of any kind, but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly, and in the public view. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas was number two, outside territorial waters alike a base and in war, except as the seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of international covenants. Number three, the removal so far as possible of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its amendments. Number four, Adequate guarantees given untaken that National armaments will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety. Number five, a free, open-minded, an absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims based upon a strict observance of the principal at the end, determining all such questions of sovereignty, the interests of the populations can start must have equal width with the equitable government whose title is to pay determines number six, the evacuation of all Russian territory and such a settlement of all questions affecting Russia as well, secure the best and freest cooperation of the other nations of the world and obtaining for her and unhampered an unembarrassed opportunity, independent determination of her own political developments and national policy, and assure her of a sincere welcome into the society of free nations under institutions of her own choosing. More than a welcome assistance also of every kind that she may need. And they herself desire the treatment accorded Russia by her sister nations. And the months to come will be the acid test of their goodwill, of their comprehension of her needs as distinguished from their own interests and all of their intelligence and unselfish sympathy. Number seven, Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated unrestored without any attempt to limit the sovereignty which she enjoys in common with all other free nations. No other single act will serve as this will serve to restore confidence among the nations and the laws which they have themselves set undetermined for the government of better relations with one another. Without this healing act, the whole structure of validity of international law Is Forever impaired. Number it all French territory should be freed on the embedded portions restored on the wronged on two fronts by Prussia in 1871 and the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the pace of the world for nearly 50 years, should be righted in order that pace may once more be made secure and the interests of all. Number nine, readjustment of the frontiers of ethylene should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality. Number ten, the people of Austria, Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to see safeguard of uninsured should be accorded the freest opportunity to autonomous development. Number 11, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro should be evacuated. Occupied territories restored. Serbia accorded free and secure access to the sea. And the relations of the several Balkan states to one another determine by friendly console along historically established lines of Allegiance and nationality. The international guarantees of the political and economic independence and territorial integrity of the several bulk and states should be entered. Intake number 12, the Turkish portion of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty. But the other nationalities which are not under Ottoman rule, should be assured an undoubted security of life and an absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development. The Dardanelles should be permanently opened as a free passage to the ships and commerce of all nations under international guarantees. Number 13, an independent Polish state should be erected. What should include the territories inhabited by undisputedly published populations, which should be assured a free and secure access to the sea and whose political and economic independence and territorial integrity should be guaranteed by international covenant. Number 14. A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to grant and small states alike. I know it was a bit long-winded reading all that. Penny, it's quite important. Europe is being carved up. It's basically being re-ordered from what it was before the war. The German revolution. We're not going to go into too much detail on this because this isn't a course on German history. But just as it pertains to the World War II Armistice, during the night from the 29th to the 30th October 1918, sailors revolted. Vilhelm haven't began on spread across Germany within days. On the 9th of November, a republic was proclaimed on Kaiser Wilhelm the second abdicated. In some places, soldiers challenged the authority of officers and established soldiers console, such as the revolutionary Brussels soldiers Console setup on the 9th of November, 1918, Maxwell Bob and handed over the office of Chancellor to the social democrat Friedrich Ebert. Social democrats and the conflict Center Party that have an uneasy relationship with the imperial government. They have representation in the Parliament and the Reichstag. But it had little power over the government. And it had been calling for peace negotiations since 1917. The presence of these parties, and then you Weimar Republic meant it was viewed as lacking legitimacy by the right-wing of the military. I'm not fat. And the things that led to the rise to power of Adolf Hitler, the beginning of the Second World War. The negotiations, the German delegation was headed by Matthias Berger and folk took part only twice in the three days of negotiations. On the first day to ask the Germans they wanted to oversee signatures. On the last day, the Germans received a list of 72 demands from the Allies and were given 72 Rs to agree the armistice required complete German di, militarization. The naval blockade was not lifted until a peace terms were a great, some of the demands were unreasonable. For example, decommissioning more submarines. Funny, actually had the Germans protested against the harshness of the allied terms. On Sunday the tenth of November, the German delegation was showed partisan newspapers to inform them that the Kaiser had abdicated. That day, Abraham constructed Hertzberg or to sign the armistice call. Von Hindenburg, head of the German High Command had requested of the cabinet that the armistice, besides even if the Allied conditions were unattainable, the armistice was finally great at five in the morning on the 11th of November, 1918, signatures were added between 12 minutes past 520 minutes past five AM. It took effect at 11 AM, which became known as the 11th are of the 11th day of the 11th month. Remembrance Sunday, which commemorates Britain's war dyad and veterans as accordingly observed at 11 AM on the Sunday closest to the 11th of November with a minute silence every year at 11 AM underlying of puppies on the Sanita by the monarch or her representative. The occupation of the Rhineland took place following the armistice. The occupying armies consisted of the American, Belgium, british, and French forces. Here are some pictures of a quite recent Remembrance Sunday. You can see the sanitize and the picture to the right. Puppies are used to commemorate the war dead because puppies grew and Flanders fields were many British soldiers were buried during the First World War. There was a poem that is recited every year, which was actually written in 1914 by Lawrence Bennion. And it's called for the fall. And it's longer poems, a mess, but this is the verse that tends to be quoted every year. They shall not grow old as we that are left grow old shall not worry them nor the years can dam at the, going down at the sun and in the morning. We will remember them. 72. Women and World War 1 : Let's talk a little bit about highly role of women changed because of the First World War. The picture you see here to the left was taken in 1914. And you can see the way that validities are dressed in this picture. Corsets, long hair with hats over them. Not quite victorian, but a little bit like it. Whereas to the right is a picture taken in 1920. You can see the skirts are much shorter, hair is much shorter. Not so much need for a horrible course at the changes in fashion are actually indicative. And the changes and the role of perception of women as we're about to find IT. Women started to take up rows that had previously been considered masculine. And of course that was because the men were off at war. And so if those rows we're going to be felt, they had to be filled by women. Women worked in munitions factories, which is actually an awful job in some cases in their hair and skin was dyed by the gases that they encountered. They also worked as gaffs that, or some window cleaners, which had previously been considered male roles. In the Victorian era, the role of women was confined to the domestic sphere. They were mothers or governances or perhaps domestic servants, but didn't really have sort of public-facing roles, if you want to call it that. Of course, the Suffragette and suffragists movements were gathering pairs around this time in history and votes for women. Women being encouraged to participate in public life was something that was gathering pace. Some man regarded the women and the workplaces as temporary interlopers and thought that when the war was over, they went, just go home again. Over a 100 thousand women volunteered and the women's land army and women also joined the Women's Royal naval service, the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps or the women's Royal Air Force as mechanics, drivers, cleaners contain workers on Clark's. Not, not all women wanted to do this. Some dead, some actually wanted but domestic role and possibly felt a little bit nervous about the changes that were happening. The war brought with it food shortages and rising prices and rents. Women basically had to work the membrane away and somebody had to pay the bills. New technologies such as the vacuum cleaner, reduced reliance on domestic servants to carry out high soil tasks. Women's institutes were introduced from Canada to Britain in 1915 and they encouraged the study of home economics. Again, this idea of women belonging in the home. I'm not sure it's been completely reinforced, but it's still considered to be a woman's primary role. Babies were considered to be at risk due to food shortages. And as a result, the early stages of the formation of local authority, maternity and child welfare committees began. Not that's actually something very interesting about the First World War, both for women on Furman. People started to mix more with other classes more than they had done previously. War the officers who were generally very middle-class had what were called Batman. Amongst the enlisted soldiers, I'm actually witnessed working class people at closer quarters than they may have done before. The same heartened when women went out to the factories. And so we see the very early stages of the well-to-do, realizing that the lot of the knots are well-to-do, was actually not a happy life and wanting to do something about it. In 1918, women bus and train drivers went on strike for equal pay. They were given a five showing bonus but not paid the same rate as their male counterparts. Maddie man came home from the war with devastating psychological trauma and or a physical injuries and they actually required care. So often men came home, perhaps I'm able to work. So the women had to keep working to be the breadwinner for the family. Or they were needed at home to care for perhaps disabled husband or father. Not everything about the lives of women or gender roles in society changed during the war though as Susan Gray of the British Library rights, socially certain demographic trends that were prevalent before the war persisted after it. Family sizes continue to shrink despite renewed anxiety, I bite falling birth rates and ongoing insistence on the significance of motherhood for women aren't there nations economically returning man displaced many women for the wartime occupations, many households and I headed by women, due to the loss of male breadwinners, face new levels of hardship. Women did not gain or retain access to all professions and they did not come close to getting equal pay for comparable work. She also tells us cultural change might be the hardest to gauge certain norms of Western middle-class femininity all but disappeared. And women's visible appearance before 1914 and after 1918 markedly differed. With many women having shorter hair I'm wearing shorter skirts are even trousers. New forms of social interaction between the sexes and across class lines became possible. But expectations about family and domestic life as the main concern of women remained on altered. Furthermore, post-war societies were largely and morning. The extent to which the process of rebuilding required the combined efforts of men and women in public and perhaps even more so in private, shows the shared human toil of this extraordinary conflict. I have posted a link to graze al's article in the notes for this section of the course. It's really fascinating and this is obviously a huge subject. The role of women changed during the Second World War as well as the First World War, of course. And if it's something that you're interested in reading a byte, have a little look in the notes section. 73. The Outbreak of World War 2: The carnage of the First World War had left Europe damaged a more war walls to come. Now, I've called this video Europe at war again. Although the World War that was to come, the second world war impacted the whole entire world with only a handful of neutral countries. But this is a British history course. So I've had to narrow down the scope. Otherwise we could have, you know, 30 ours just on the Second World War. So let's talk a bit in this video about high the war broke out in Europe. The Second World War ran from 1939 until 1945. All the world's great part, most of its countries fought the war. The opposing sides where they allies and those were Great Britain, the USA, China and the Soviet Union. And the access pars. And those were Germany, Italy, and Japan, with some other countries coming in later, 100 million personnel fought the war, but civilians also experienced the war. There were 70 to 85 million deaths resulting from the war with a large proportion bank civilian aircraft were used for overhead bombing and the Blitz and the bombing of Dresden, and occasions like that, a lot of people died. The only two uses of nuclear weapons and war occurred during World War II. Many deaths occurred due to genocides though, notably the Holocaust, one of the worst atrocities and the whole of human history. Starvation and disease we're also rifled caused a lot of deaths. Would be inaccurate to say that the war started because of one man, but he was a big part of it. This man, out of hitler, widely regarded as perhaps the most evil individual to have ever lived. He was personally responsible for the murders of 11 million people. And that's before you start counting those who died in the war who were civilians or military personnel out of Hitler lived from the 20th of April, 1889 to the 30th of April 1945. He dismantled democracy in Germany and became an absolute dictator. Under his leadership, Germany became a war state which aim to conquer Europe. He believed in the supremacy of the so-called area and risks. Northern European white German individuals, as well as war debts. Under Hitler, 11 million people died by execution and extermination, mostly in concentration camps which were very efficient at dueling death using gas chambers and other horrific means of mass extermination. 6 million of these people were Jews. Other group sent to concentration camps included Slavs, homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, Communists, disabled people, especially those with learning disabilities, and Romani gypsies. Some evangelical Christians and other Christians who had shelter. Jewish families were also sent to concentration camps. Hitler took the title of Fuhrer, meaning later or guide. He was supported by officers in the German military and by many private citizens who voted for the far-right of fascist, Nazi Party. Now I have disturbingly seen memes on Facebook that say, socialism doesn't work. Look at the Nazis. There is a difference between socialism and national socialism. The Nazis were very much a fascist party. In fact, if you look up the definition of fascism on Britannica and Wikipedia, it will give you Hitler as the biggest example of fascism, followed by miscellany. These people viewed Hitler as a national savior who will address the humiliation that Germany had suffered under the Treaty of Versailles and the hyperinflation, an economic crisis that had beset Germany after the Treaty on the first world war. Hitler was a charismatic speaker and he propagated his ideas using mass rallies. Hitler had fought in the trenches of World War I and he formed the Nazi Party on his return. After the First World War, the Allies had forced Germany's new Weimar Republic to accept the loss of territory and other humiliating terms and the Treaty of Versailles and to pay $33 billion in today's money and reparation, which had a devastating impact on the German economy. Territories that were lost included the German Empire's overseas territories and parts of Germany itself will see the two fronts on Poland. The country was not permitted to have an air force or submarines almost required to downsize its army. One British official had said, we shall squeeze the German lemon until the pips squeak. But the German economy was squeezed too hard and the result was hyperinflation. By September 19234 billion German marks have the same value as one US dollar. Famously, it took a wheelbarrow of money to buy one loaf of bread, and this caused real suffering to the German population. Hitler held public meetings and used his considerable gifts as an orator to call for a new order in Germany to replace what he described as a failing democratic regime. He advocated a hierarchical system with a supreme national leader like Kaiser Wilhelm the second had been an autocrat and had ended up being forced to abdicate and hit there S going to come in also as an autocratic absolute later. Individual rights would give way to the supremacy of the state with citizens severing the folk that the state or the paper, the Nazis M to control Germany's Parliament, uninstall Hitler as Fuhrer over a country of racially pure Germans, eradicating those who were not racially pure. Anyone not of German blood, especially from races that were considered inferior. They would then embark on world conquest. Strangely enough, because of the Anglo-Saxons, Hitler actually did view the English as being Aryan. Hitler saw the Jewish community as the key threat to the aims of the Nazi party and total listeners, they could expect either victory of the area or annihilation of the area. And under victory of the Jews, the Jews are the animate and his perception. He claimed that Jews and communists had made the Weimar government wake, aiming to seize power for themselves. Hitler viewed human history as a series of racial struggles in which the strongest risk, the area and risks prevailed through force of arms so might overwrite basically, he wrote that mankind has grown grit and eternal war, it would decay and eternal pace. Recently, the actress Whoopi Goldberg has been criticized for saying that the Second World War and the actions of Hitler were not about racism. They very much where racism back in the 1930s and 40s was not defined in terms of skin color as it might be today, but in terms of ethnic heritage. And this is really a bite the area and risks versus all other races. And Hitler's mind, the causes of Hitler's obsessive hatred of the Jews are much debated. But Jewish people were associated with many movements that the Nazis didn't like. For example, Karl Marx had been a German Jew or manager. Communist leaders in Germany came from Jewish backgrounds. Jews were perceived as controlling finance capitalism, and they were involved in modernist concepts such as psychoanalysis and swing music. The pure blooded Germany, which Hitler envisaged would be free of Jews, are known as the Third Reich or the third kingdom. It would wage war on Slavic Russia and the slaves were viewed as inferior humans, so-called intervention. Hitler wanted to use swaths of land from the Soviet Union and other places to create Lebensraum or living space for German farms on communities. These would be connected to the fatherland by new roads known as auto bonds. By 1921, the Nazi Party had a newspaper f flag, the famous swastika, of course, and its own private army, the term Up Thailand Storm Troopers. This was made up of disaffected World War I veterans. By 1923, it had 15 thousand trips and had access to hidden weapons stores. 1923, general Erich Ludendorff, the quarter master, and World War II, you'll recall, attempted to overthrow the government of Bavaria, along with Hitler and a coup known as the Beer Hall Putsch. The rebellion was crushed by the authentic German army. Hitler went to prison for a year and whilst n Landsberg prison, he dictated his autobiography, the famous mine Kampf, my struggle. Hitler continued to give speeches, unorganized maidens sprouting has doctrine of racism, anti-semitism, and expansionism. By 1933, the Nazi Party was the largest party in the Reichstag. In January 1933, Hitler was the only candidate with enough support to govern. President Paul Von Hindenburg appointed him as Chancellor of Germany. Soon afterwards, I young Dutch communist set fire to the Reichstag building and Berlin. And Hitler used this as an opportunity to persuade Hindenburg to declare a state of emergency and curtail many civil liberties, such as freedom of the press and freedom of expression on the right to organize public assemblies. The police could attend citizens without calls are warrants as well. Local government authority with saida to Hitler's National regime. Hitler used the state of emergency to dismantle democratic institutions in prison or murder political opponents. Hindenburg died in 1934 and Hitler took the title of Fuhrer chancellor and commander-in-chief of the army. He's not absolutely in charge of the whole of Germany. He expounded the army prodigiously introducing conscription. He also began to develop an Air Force, and these actions were clearly in contravention of the Treaty of Versailles. So he's saying he doesn't really care about the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler helped to restore a financial stability by investing in public infrastructure such as the Autobahn. He suppressed the Communist Party. He also purged his stormtroopers who were unpopular with the middle-class due to their fungus behavior. And this happened famously and one night called The Night of the Long Knives. In 1930 it, hitler began to put into place his plant extent national boundaries to include all ethnic Germans. Austrian Nazis helped him to bring it by the Anschluss, and that's the annexation of Austria. Hitler himself, of course, was ostium. He acquired the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia by the policy of appeasement, which was followed by Britain and France in 1930. It, and we're going to hear a little bit more about that later. The next year he sees the rest of Czechoslovakia. Then he marched into Poland and Britain was forced to declare war on. Britain declared war on the 3rd of September 1939. Neville Chamberlain and the outbreak of World War II. Globally, there were many conflicts which led to the Second World War. But in Europe the war is widely agreed to have a gown on the 1st of September 1939, when Nazi Germany invaded Poland, the United Kingdom and France then declared war. And response on the 3rd of September, under the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union had partitioned Poland and to find their spheres of influence and Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania under media from the end of 1939 until the early 1941, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe using a series of campaigns and treaties. It formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan, and then other countries joined later. Parts of Germany had been seated to Czechoslovakia after World War II. In September 1938, Germans living in this region, notice the Sudetenland protested on came into conflict with the Czech police. Adult Hitler wanted to unify German people and an amex, the Sudetenland. He meant dishes. Lay claim that 300 Germans had been killed by check police and police german troops along the Czech border. The British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain met Hitler at his mountain retreat and box the garden to try to resolve this crisis. Chamberlain them met Hitler a week later and Gothenburg, and then on the 29th of September and Munich for the so-called Munich Conference. The meeting and music was between Chamberlain, Hitler, italian premier Benito Mussolini, and French Premier Edouard Daladier. There was no representative from Czechoslovakia. It was great that hip there could have the Sudetenland if he didn't try to extend Germany's lands and Europe any further, this strategy was referred to as appeasement. There were huge celebrations and London, as people believed a war had been adverted, Europe was still suffering and the aftermath of the First World War on the last thing anybody wanted was another war. German troops occupied the state land on the 1st of October 1938. History.com reports that on a rainy autumn evening, thousands a weird with the Prime Minister's return, that London's Heston era drum, I'm thankful, crowd cheered wildly as a door to his British Airways airplane opened. As raindrops fell on Chamberlain silver hair, he stepped onto the airport tarmac. He held the law of the non-aggression pact that had been inked by him and Hitler only Rs before. The flimsy piece of paper flat to the brace, the Prime Minister rat to the nation that brief agreement that reaffirmed the desire of our two peoples never to go to war with one another again. With a cheering crowd outside. Chamberlain was someone to Buckingham Palace to give an in-person icon to King George the sixth of father of our current Queen Elizabeth. The second, of course, Chamberlain told the cried, my good friends, This is the second time in our history that there has come back from Germany to Downing Street. Peace with honor, the first Prime Minister that he's referring to being Benjamin Disraeli. And 1870 it, I believe it is peace for our time. Then he added night, I recommend you go home and speak quietly in your beds, and otherwise there is nothing to worry. A bite. His quotation of my peace with honor, of course, that very ironic quotation and has become very much associated with Chamberlain. March 1939, Hitler annex the whole of Czechoslovakia a marched into Poland on the 1st of September 1939. Chamberlain was replaced by Western Churchill about eight months later. The past Chamberlain has been viewed as wake or maybe a bit foolish for not for saying what was to come. But somehow I believe that the Munich Pact give Britain valuable time to build its defenses, since it wasn't as strong in terms of military might as Germany walls. And that Hitler could not have been defeated at that hadn't been the case. So he's being re-evaluated by historians currently. 74. Winston Churchill Part 1: We feel go onto the end. Fighting brown, fight on the seas and oceans. We should fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air. Defend our island. Whatever the cost, maybe we should fight on the beaches, fight on the landing grounds, which will fight in the fields, and industries, which to fight in the hills. We shall never surrender. And if I do not for a moment believe Ireland are large part of it, but subjugated and starving our empire beyond the Cj. And guarded by them brief free to carry on the struggle until in God's good guy, the new world, with all its power and my boss to the rescue and deliberation of the old Germany had a charismatic leader who was able to convince people because he was a great public speaker. And it so happened that Britain had exactly the same, this gentleman, Winston Churchill, who suffered from depression for a lot of his life but still managed to inspire hope and people who had a serious speech impediment to ever since childhood and yet was a great orator and wordsmith. If he was a national hero and in fact he was voted the greatest spread and to have ever lived in 2002, he was not altogether a cent. The bombing of Dresden is why they consider to be an atrocity. He didn't respond to the thumb and bandgap quickly enough on He's scattered the French fleet. Nevertheless, it's widely believed that without Winston Churchill, we Europeans would possibly be living in the Third Reich. No. Winston Churchill's life began in the Victorian era. He lived through the First World War, the Second World War, and actually was instrumental at the start of the Cold War. So there's quite a lot to say about Winston Churchill. So let's hear about him. Winston lettered Spencer Churchill was born on the 30th of November. It contains 74, and he lived until the 24th of January, 1965. He was British Prime Minister and statesman. He was also a writer and a filmmaker. He started to Prime Minister during the Second World War from 1940 to 1945. He took the office a second time from 1951 until 1955. He was an economic liberal and an imperialist, and very much an imperialist in terms of political ideology. For most of his parliamentary career, he was a member of the Conservative Party, although he also had a stint as a liberal. He had been a member of the Liberal Party from 1904 until 1924, when I say a stent to empty years. He was born into a well established aristocratic family with an American mother. If you remember, Sarah Churchill, who was the favorite of Queen Anne and her husband John Churchill, that frustrated Barbara. They were ancestors of Winston Churchill. He joined the Army in 1895 on fault and India and then the Anglo Sudan War and the Second Boer War. He became a war correspondent on wrote books by his time in the military. He was elected as a Conservative MP and 1900's on defected to the liberals in 1904. He served and ask what's governments as President of the Board of Trade, that Home Secretary introduce prison reforms, undeveloped Workers, Social Security. He was First Lord of the Admiralty during the First World War and oversaw the disastrous campaign at Gallipoli, following which he was demoted to Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. He resigned and joined the Royal Scots visa Lear's at the Western Front and November 1915, he returned to the government in 1917 and served as Minister of munitions, then Secretary of State for war under David Lloyd George. He also served as Secretary of State for air and Secretary of State for the colonies. After a two-year opsins from Parliament, he served as Chancellor of the Exchequer and Stanley Baldwin's conservative government. He was viewed as having depressed the UK economy by returning ponds starting to the gold standard at a handheld pre-war. Churchill was out of the government from much of the 1930's and he referred to these as his wilderness years. Churchill was a leading voice calling for rearmament in Britain to counter the growing part of the Nazis in Germany. He was reappointed as First Lord of the Admiralty at the outbreak of the Second World War. And he became Prime Minister and May 1940, he oversaw the British row and the defeat of the Axis parse. The conservatives were then the feted in the 1900's election on he became leader of the opposition. Post-war, he warned of an Iron Curtain, which was a phrase that he coined which would develop in Europe under Soviet influence and the Cold War. He promoted European unity. He lost the 150th election, but return to the office of Prime Minister in 1951. Anglo-american relations on the preservation of the British Empire occupied his tenure the second time round. During this period, his government oversaw heist building on the development or a British nuclear weapons program, which had been initiated by his predecessor. He resigned as prime minister in 1955 for health reasons, but served as an MP until 1964. Churchill died in 1965 and was recorded a state funeral, unusual for someone who was not a monarch or a high-ranking member of the royal family. Chart showed romance, a well-respected figure, widely regarded as a competent wartime leader who had a huge victory over fascism. He is also praised for some of his social reforms. He's come in for criticism for events such as the bombing of Dresden on the scattering of the French fleet and of course the bam gautham. He's also criticized for his imperialist attitudes by modern commentators. He won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1953. I was a prolific writer as well as being a politician. And I have his Second World War Series sitting on my bookshelf. I'm sure that many of you will have something written by Winston Churchill in your home. Winston Churchill was born on the 30th of November 1874 at his family seat of blend and palace and Oxfordshire. On his father's side, he was descended from the fresh chicken Marlborough, John Churchill, the favorite of Queen Anne, who we talked about earlier on at some length. His Father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was a Conservative MP. His mother Jenny, was an American air as the daughter of businessman ladder Jerome. In 1876, Churchill's grandfather, John Spencer Churchill was made viceroy of Ireland and round-off became his private secretary. So the family moved to Dublin. Churchill's brother Jack was born in Dublin. And 1880, Jenny and round-off were becoming increasingly estranged from each other. So the boys were cared for by their nanny, Elizabeth Everest. When she died in 1995, Churchill wrote of her, she had been my dearest and most intimate friend during the whole of the 20 years I had lived. H7 Churchill was sent to boarding school, Georgia School and ask it on Berkshire. He didn't farewell academically and he was considered a bit of a rapper bet he did not behave. So if you got into trouble at school and you've got the odd Deanna tasks. Well, you could be Winston Churchill, who knows. In 1884 he moved to brown sweat school and hoof, where his academic performance improved. He passed the entrance exam for Hero and April 1880, it is 13. And harrow is a very prestigious public school, which actually means private school. For those of you who aren't from England. His father wanted him to enter the military and so he prepared for this at Cairo, but he was unsuccessful twice and getting a place in the Military Academy at sand Hurst. He was successful on the third attempt. He became a cadet and the cavalry at Sanchez and September 1893, Churchill's father sadly died a month after he graduated from Santa 1st and January 1895. In February 1895, Churchill was commissioned as a second left-handed and the fourth Queen's Own has SARs. He used his mother's influence to gain a post and a war zone. He and his friend Reggie Barnes were sent to observe the Cuban War of Independence. And ultimately 1895, Churchill sent reports on the conflict to the daily graphic and London. He then went to New York and wrote to his American mother, what an extraordinary people the Americans are. He was posted in Bombay and October 1896 and remains an NDR for 19 months based in Bangalore. He visited Kolkata three times on joined expeditions to Hyderabad of the North-West Frontier. Whilst in India, Churchill decided to educate himself and embarked on a reading program which included Plato Edward Gibbon, most famous for his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Charles Darwin, the naturalist and geologists, I'm Thomas bombings and McCauley, the British historian and writer credited with introducing Western education in India. His mother sent the books and he also asked for the political almanac, the annual register, so he could teach himself a byte politics. He referred to himself as a liberal and all but name, but he couldn't join the Liberal Party due to its support for Arish home row. What she didn't believe in. Churchill is kind of an interesting figure in terms of politics because he was a member of the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party at various points. He didn't really ascribe to only one political ideology. And I think in our times we tend to be a little bit tribal, a byte politics. He was basically a conservative amongst liberals, on a liberal amongst conservatives quite a lot of the time. He aligned himself with one nation conservatism within the conservative party. And that was a paternalistic conservative movement advocating the preservation of established institutions and traditional social values. Very conservative with a small city, he gave his first public speech at the Primrose League and organization for promoting conservatism at Calvert and darn near Bath. He mixed conservative and reformist principles, advocating for secular non-denominational education and opposing women's suffrage. Churchill volunteered at the stage of malachite as part of the campaign led by British military commander, been done blood to cause a moment, rebels and Northwest India. Blood a great he could serve on the condition he was assigned as a journalist. And that began Churchill's writing career. He wrote his first book and Bangalore and 1897, the story of the Moleskine field force, and it met with favorable reviews. Around this time he wrote his only work of fiction, several law, which describes the struggle of a fictional European state against a dictator. Churchill use rifling through ITS life to counter the symptoms of depression. And he referred to his condition as the Black Dog, which still today as a term used to describe depression. Actually use contacts in London to secure a post-it general kitchen. There's campaign in the Sudan. He joined the 21st answers as a subaltern. He wrote for the Morning Post whilst he was there. In November 1899 after his return to England, his campaign entitled The River war was published, Churchill decided to leave the army as he was critical of Kitchener, particularly his inclement treatment of anomie winded and his desecration of the time of Mohammed Ahmad and Omdurman in the Sudan. He traveled to India on the second of December 1898 to resign from the fourth has sars. There. He played polo a lot and that was the only sport that interested him as far as we know. He sailed from Bombay on the 20th of March, 1999, determined to begin a career in politics, Churchill spoke at conservative meetings and the party selected him as a candidate for the June 1989 bioelectric that older men like a sharp, the Conservatives lost the previously held Oldham sake to the Liberal Party. Having failed to enter politics at this point, Churchill sale to South Africa as a journalist for the morning posts to cover the outbreak of the Second Boer War. He was traveling within South Africa when his trend was derailed by bow or artillery shells, and Churchill was captured as a prisoner of war. He was held at aboard POW camp and proteinuria. His skipped and December and abated recaptured by storing away on trends and hiding in a mine. Eventually he arrives safely and Portuguese East Africa. The story of his escape attracted a lot of publicity. In January and 1900's, Churchill rejoined the army as a leftenant, serving in the fight to relieve the siege of Liddy Smith and tech proteinuria. He and his cousin Charles Spencer Churchill, the Ninth Duke of Marlborough, demanded and received the surrender of 52 Bohr prison camp guards. He called for the brewers to be treated with generosity and tolerance. In July, he resigned his commission and return to Britain. He had published his morning dispatchers and his popular book, London to Larry Smith via Proctorio. He rented a flattened may fair, a very salubrious area of London. For the next six years, he achieved his goal of becoming an MPI when he stood as a conservative candidate and Oldham in the 1900's general election, entering parliament age 25. In the same month he published a book about his experiences in South Africa in Hamilton's March, and he carried out a lecture tour of Britain, America, and Canada. Mps were unpaid at that point in history. Or some of you might be snickering it, Batman. And so it was necessary to do this to produce some income. In America. He met Mark twin, president William McKinley and Vice President Theodore Roosevelt. Spring 1901, he gave lectures and Paris, Madrid, and Gibraltar. In February 1901, Churchill's MIT and speech to Parliament was widely covered in the press. He was associated with a Conservative Party faction known as the hooligans, after Lord who is sessile, who was there later. This was a group of back benches dissatisfied with the leadership of Arthur golfer. He was critical of the government's Army funding when he felt additional resources were needed by the Navy. He increasingly socialized with liberals, particularly imperialists such as HH Asquith. Churchill later wrote that he drifted steadily to the left of parliamentary politics. He considered the idea of forming a central party to unite conservatives and liberals. Serious rift occurred between Churchill on the Conservative Party in 1903 as he advocated free trade and the party followed a policy of protectionism. Protectionism means keeping it all within your own country when it comes to trade, basically, Churchill experienced animosity from party members and realized that he would never done a cabinet position within the Conservative Party. The Liberal Party was getting support on. He defected in 1904, possibly due to personal ambition. Churchill had a record of voting with liberals against the conservative government. For example, he supported the boat to restore legal rights to trade unions and opposed an increase in military expenditure. When buffers government introduced protectionism. And October 1903, the Oldham conservative association told Churchill they would not support him as a candidate. And the next general election in May 1904, Churchill opposed the aliens bell, which aim to limit the migration of Jews into Britain. He felt the bill would appeal to insular prejudice against foreigners, to racial prejudice against Jews until labor prejudice against competition. And advocated the old tolerant, ungenerous practice of free entry and asylum to which this country has so long adhere to and from which it has so greatly gained. He officially crossed the floor to sit with the Liberal Party on the 31st of May 1904. During his time on the liberal benches, Churchill became thought of as a political radical, influenced by John Morley and David Lloyd George. Botha resigned as prime minister in 1905 and liberal later Henry Cabot bottom and was asked to take his place. He called a general election in January 1906, hoping to secure a majority. Churchill won the Manchester Northwest S8. Churchill published a biography of his father, and the same month for which he was paid in advance of £8 thousand, which is the equivalent to £1 million. The liberal Alexander McCallum Scott published the first biography of Churchill at this time. Chart shovels give them the junior ministerial position he had requested under Secretary of State for the colonial office. He employed Edward Marcia as a secretary, a march retained thought posts for 25 years. His first task was to draft a constitution for the trans. While he oversaw the formation of a government and the Orange Free State, he was concerned about PR, relationships between the African natives on the white European settlers. After the Zulu rebellion and the towel, he deplored disgusting butchery of the natives by Europeans. Ask with became prime minister on the 8th of April, 1908, Churchill was appointed as president of the Board of Trade four days later, at the age of 33, cha-cha was the youngest cabinet member since it 1066. As a newly appointed cabinet minister, he was required to seek re-election at a by election which he lost and Manchester Northwest, but the Liberal Party failed at him in the safe state of w1 date which he was uncomfortable. Churchill admired Clementine hose here on the 12th of September 1908. The churches at Margaret's and the grinds of Westminster Abbey. They honeymoon in Venice and Moravia. Their first child, Diana, was born on July 1909. The Churchill's have a successful and happy marriage which provided Winston with a secure, unhappy home. Churchill arbitrator and an industrial dispute between ship workers unemployed at the river time, he set up a standing Court of Arbitration for industrial disputes and became known as a conciliator. He worked with David Lloyd George to champion social reform. For example, introducing a bill to limit the r's that miners were expected to work to it a day. He also introduced the trade board spill, creating bodies which would prosecute employers who exploited workers. It also allowed workers to have middle breaks. He proposed the labor exchanges bow and May 19092 established 200 labor exchanges to help the unemployed find work. Churchill on Lord George rejected the policy of naval expansion put forward at the time, believing that a war with Germany was not inevitable, Lord George announced his famous people's budgets and April 1909, describing it as a word, budget to eliminate poverty. There were unprecedented taxes on the rich to fund welfare reforms. Churchill was Lord George's closest political ally. The budget was vetoed by conservative members of the House of Lords. Churchill became president of a pressure group known as the budget Lake. He warned of a class war should the upper-class is block the reforms needed by the working classes. The January 1910 general election produced a narrow liberal majority. Churchill retained his seat and Dundee, he sent a memorandum proposing that the House of Lords be replaced with either a unicameral system or an upper house, which did not favor of the conservatives. The people's budget was eventually passed in April 1910 when the Lord's relented Churchill and nevertheless campaigned against the House of Lords and assisted in the passage of the Parliament Act of 1911, which limited it's pars. Churchill was promoted to Home Secretary and February 1910, which is one of the higher offices of state. He carried out of prison reform program which distinguished between criminal and political prisoners with prison rules relaxed for political prisoners. He introduced libraries to prisons and required them to stage entertainments four times a year. He commuted 21 of the 43 capital sentences past while he was Home Secretary. Women's suffrage was a huge issue at the time. Churchill would only support it if it had the majority support of the male electorate. He proposed a referendum, but ask with rejected the idea of women's suffrage was not introduced until 1918. Suffragettes perceived Churchill as an opponent of women's suffrage on staged protests up his meetings. Churchill was attacked with a whip by the suffragists who Franklin and November 1910, Franklin was imprisoned for six weeks. The Tony Ponzi riots broke out in summer 1910, coal miners and the Rhonda Valley stitch violent protests against their working conditions. Churchill was asked to send troops but block their deployment, only allowing them to travel as far as swindled add card if he didn't think that standing in the army walls the way to go. Instead, he sent 270 London police officers who didn't carry firearms to assist the local police and Wales. He offered the workers on interview with the government's chief industrial arbitrator. In private, he thought both the miners on the mine owners were very reasonable. Newspapers accused him of being too lenient towards the rioters. The emerging Labour Party thought he was too heavy handed. The labor movement viewed Churchill with suspicion for a long period of time. Churchill retained the safe state of Dante and the December 1910 general election, January 1911, Churchill stood with the police in person at the stage of Sydney straight three Latvian burglars had killed several police officers that and sculpts themselves at the highest and the East End of London pictured below. When the highest caught fire, he ordered the fire brigade not to enter due to the threat posed by the armed burglars. Two of the burgers subsequently died in the highest. When criticized for his actions, he responded that he had thought it better to let the highest barn died rather than spend good British lives and rescuing those ferocious rascals. In March 1911, cha-cha presented the second reading of the code lines act, which introduced tight or safety measures and coal mines, lord George introduced the National Insurance Act, 1911. By April the 1st, health and unemployment insurance and the UK, Churchill had contributed significantly to the drafting of the legislation. That may Clementine gave birth to the capitals son Randolph. The academic crisis of 1911, at which french troops were deployed in Morocco with a German gunboats being deployed to the Moroccan Atlantic port of Agadez threatened to result in a war between France and Germany. Churchill proposed an alliance with France and Russia to safeguard the independence of Belgium and cut off possible German expansionism. Churchill changed his mind regarding the expansion of the Navy due to the Agora Dear crisis. Churchill was appointed as First Lord of the Admiralty by asked with an October 1911. They took up official residence and Admiralty high spheres in Whitehall in London. He created a naval worst off on over the next two years, visited naval stations and dock yards while scrutinizing German naval development. So he was really ahead of the game at this point. In 1912, the German government passed a law increasing warship production. So Churchill declared that Britain would go to war ships for every ship votes by the Germans. Germany refused Churchill's invitation to de-escalate shipbuilding and the two nations. Churchill, endeavor to secure higher pay and more recreational facilities for naval staff. He also wanted to say more submarines and aircraft carriers which were experimental. And his day, he ordered the production of a 100 sea plants and he actually coined the term C plan. Some liberals objected to the level of expenditure in the Navy and Churchill threatened to resign if his proposal for, for new battleships to be ready in 1914 to 15 was rejected. He secured access to oil for the Navy by persuading the comments to authorize a government purchase of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company and jain 1914, a key political issue at this time was Irish home rule, which Churchill had previously opposed. But when asked with introduced the Home Rule Bill, he urged Ulster Unionist, except that as he didn't want to see the partitioning of Ireland as a cabinet member, he sent naval forces to Ireland to quash any possible unionist uprising. He suggested a federal United Kingdom with Ireland as one region, but this was rejected by Irish nationalists and liberals. When the First World War broke out in 1914, Churchill was responsible for the Navy's rule and the war. The Navy transported a 120 thousand trips to France, began a blockade of Germany is North Sea ports. Churchill sent British submarines to assist the Russians and the Baltic Sea. And September Churchill became responsible for Britain's wartime Air Force. His third child, Sarah, was born on the 7th of October 1914. Churchill went to account for our political that month and observe the Belgium defenses against the German sage. He promised the city British reinforcements went on for up fell to the Germans. Churchill Fisk criticism and the press. He argued that he had prolonged allied resistance on a library allies to take Cali and Dunkirk. November ask with Formed war council made up of himself, Churchill, Lord George Edward Grey on general Kitchener. Chart show proposed developing the new technology of the tank and offered to find the funds from the Admiralty budget. Churchill was interested in the Middle Eastern Theater of the war and wanted to assist the Russians by attacking the Turks and the Dardanelles. And I glue French naval force attempted this in March 1915. In April, the Mediterranean expedition force, which included the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, began an assault at Gallipoli. These campaigns failed and Churchill was held personally responsible, especially by conservatives, when Asquith needed to form a coalition government. And may the conservatives would not join unless Churchill was removed from the Admiralty. He was demoted to Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, at which at the time was a lower status Cabinet Office. Churchill resigned from the government on the 25th of November, 1915, although he remains a sitting MP, Asquith rejected his request to be appointed Governor General of British East Africa. He joined the army. I was posted with the second grand today or guards to the Western Front. In January 1916, he was temporarily given command of the sixth row Scott refusal ears, I'm middle left-hand colonel. His battalion was placed at the Belgium front. He narrowly escaped death when a large piece of shrapnel fell between him and his staff officer in cousin the Ninth Duke of Marlborough. In May, the sixth Royal Scots feudal ears were merged into the 15th division. Churchill did not request a new command. Instead, securing permission to leave active service. He returned to the rank of major on the 16th of May, the House of Commons. He spoke about the war and argued that conscription should be extended to the Irish. The bravery from soldiers should be recognized and that steel helmets should be introduced for trips. He acted as a back bench or not being reinstated to the government as the conservatives still blamed him for the failure of the campaign and Gallipoli, the Dardanelles report, on the other hand, did not attribute any personal blame to Churchill for the failed campaigns. Lord George replaced ask, what's his Prime Minister on October 1916, May 1917, he sent Churchill to inspect the French war effort. Churchill was appointed minister of munitions and July, he negotiated an anti-A strike by workers and munitions factories and increase the production of munitions. In July 1918, He stopped a second strike by threatening to conscript those on strike and to the army. He voted to support the representation of the People Act in 1918, which gives some women the right to vote. His fourth child, marigold, was born four days after the signing of the armistice in November 1918. After the war, lord George cold in the election in December 1918, during the election campaign, Churchill code for the nationalization of the railways. I control them monopolies, tax reform, and the creation of a League of Nations to prevent future wars. He kept the CIF seat of Dundee. The conservatives want a majority, but Lord George was retained as Prime Minister. Churchill was given the offices of Secretary of State for war on Secretary of State for air. And January 1919, he was responsible for demobilizing the British army. He convinced Lord George to retain a million men conscripted for the British army of the Rhine. He was one of only a few ministers who opposed harsh treatment of Germany and warned against immobilizing the German army, which could yet prove an asset against the newly established Soviet Russia. He was a staunch opponent of Vladimir Lenin's Communist Party and Soviet Russia. He had supported sending British troops to add the white forces in Russia and fighting the rats are the Bolsheviks. The British people didn't support this, where the Soviets won the Russian Civil War. Churchill had proposed a cordon sanitaire, meaning cutting off that region politically. During the Irish War of Independence, he had support the use of the brittle black and towns who were comfortable and the royal hours can stimulate known for their excessive force. Actually, my grandfather had an uncle, he was black and tan and he actually suffered a nervous breakdown due to the things he had done. So severe wear, their treatment of the population. He advocated the use of mustard gas when British troops clashed with Kurdish rebels and Iraq. He thought this would inflict punishment upon recalcitrant natives without inflicting grid injury upon them. This was never implemented. He advocated returning control of Central and Northern Iraq to Turkey. In February 1921, Churchill was appointed as secretary of state for the colonies. The following bumps, the first exhibit of his paintings withheld. It took place in Paris with Churchill exhibiting under a pseudonym. And here's an example of his painting beneath. His mother died in May and that august has two-year-old daughter Margo, died of septicemia. Her parents were devastated and Churchill never got over her loss. Churchill was involved in negotiations with shin fen later on to help draft the ankle hours trading shouldn't fan means ourselves on as a reference to self-determination. He achieved his aim of adjacent the cost of occupying the Middle East. He played a role in the installation of Faisal the first in Iraq and his brother Abdullah the first and Jordan. He was a Zionist and refused an Arab Palestinian petition to prohibit Jewish migration to Palestine. That wasn't on religious grounds though because Churchill had been vehemently anti Christian in his youth, became agnostic and adulthood. After the 1900's one Jaffa riots, which developed into an attack on Arabs by Jewish rioters. He did a lot of temporary restrictions. That Chuck crisis erupted. And September 1922, when turkish forces threat to occupy the Dardanelles neutral zone police by the British Army and Chuck NADH, China, Kali, Lord George and Churchill favorite military resistance. If the Turks advanced, the Conservatives opposed military measures. The conservatives withdrew from the government and the ensuing arguments on a general election was called for in November 1922, Churchill's fifth child, Mary was born that September. He purchased his famous home of chart well in Chem two, which was the family home for the rest of his life. Churchill lost his safe, Satan Dante, just after having his appendix removed, he later reflected that they had found himself without an office with IDA State with our two-party up with art on appendix. He became one of the 50 components of ulnar and Lloyd George's 1922 dissolution Honors List. This order have been funded by George the Fifth in 1917 to reward outstanding achievements. For the next six months, Churchill move to Cannes where he painted on, wrote his memoirs. He also wrote an autobiographical history of the First World War, the world crisis. The first volume was published in 1923 and the rest over the next ten years. In the 1920s, three general election, several liberal associations asked Churchill does stat, he chose to stand and last or West, but he didn't win the seat. The Labor Party came to power under Ramsey McDonald, Churchill oppose the McDonald's government's decision to lend money to Soviet Russia and fairs and I glow Soviet treatment. On May 18th of March 1924 charts bounds of the Liberal Party due to their support for labor at stood as an empty socialist and dependent counter that and the Westminster Abbey By election which he lost. He told a conservative meeting and Liverpool that may, but there was no longer a place in British politics for the Liberal Party. He believed that liberals should support the conservatives to bring a bike for successful the fate of socialism. In July, the conservative leader Stanley Baldwin are great to feel Churchill as a candidate. And the next general election, which was held on the 29th, October 1924, Churchill student at bank and described himself as a constitutionalist. Churchill won the state and the conservatives won the election. Churchill was appointed as Chancellor of the Exchequer. That we had no experience of economics. The Chancellor of the Exchequer as the second most prominent posted government next to the Prime Minister currently, churchill believed in free trade unless I faire economics and other words, a lack of government control. In April 1925, he reluctantly restored the gold standard and his first budget of its 1914 parody and against the advice of some leading economists including John Maynard Keynes, this proved controversial. It resulted in the flesh and, and unemployment on how to devastating impact on the coal industry which employed a lot of people. Churchill reduced the state pension age from seven days to 65. He provided widows pensions, reduced military expenditure, income tax on taxes on luxury goods. During the nine day general strike in 1926, Churchill edited the government's empty strike propaganda newspaper at the British Gazette. When the strike ended, he became an intermediary between striking miners and their employers. He later called for a minimum wage to be introduced. He met with Mussolini and Roman 1920s seven, I'm praised him for his stand against London. The conservatives were defeated in the 1920s nine general election. The other Churchill returned his seat and mapping. Mcdonald's formed the second Labour government. Churchill was art of office and had several bytes of the Black Dog, the term he coined for depression as we heard earlier. And he contradict by writing as well as his won't. He felt that his talents were being wasted on his time was slipping by he wrote a four volume biography of his ancestor John Churchill fresh GQ of Barbara, who was the husband of Sarah Churchill, the favorite of queen on we recall he gained a reputation for being a prodigious drinker, either the Winston Churchill society to speed says claiming that his family report never having seen him drink. One of his daughters also disputed this legendary drunk and exchange. Often quoted. Betsy Braddock MP OSAT have said that Churchill, Winston, you are drunk, What's more? You are disgusting. They drunk. And Churchill is said to have replied, Bessie, my dear, you are ugly and what's more you are discussing the ugly. But tomorrow I shall be sober and you will still be discussing the ugly. Not very nice. There are some other sort of pithy quotes attributed to Churchill. My favorite being when Lady Astor set him Winston, if I were your wife, I would poison your coffee. Winston replied, madam, if you were my wife, I drink it. He was also criticized in the commons for ending a sentence with a preposition to which he replied. This is the kind of pattern tray up with which I will not put with bold was approval Churchill work to establish conservative liberal coalition to oppose the Labor Party. Churchill published his autobiography, my early life and October 1930, which sold well almost translated into several languages. He resigned from the shadow cabinet and January 1931, when Baldwin supported the labor government's decision to grant the status of a Dominion to India. He believed this would bring a bike, calls for full independence. He described Mohandas Gandhi as a seditious middle temporal lawyer. Now I posing as a thick arrow, the middle temporal lawyers could call their members to the English bar. And a faker is actually a Muslim rather than a Hindu term, meaning someone who does everything and the name of their religion. So he was generally trying to be insulting grassroots conservative support of his views. But many liberals on Labor Party members were angered by his remarks on NDF. The conservatives won the 1830s one general elec 75. Winston Churchill Part 2: In June 1935, McDonald's resigned and was replaced by Baldwin, who then led the conservatives to victory and a general election, Churchill returned his sate, although it has majority increased again, he was still not offered a government position. King George the Fifth died in January 1936 and will succeeded by Edward the IT, whose decision to marry the American divorce a while a symptom, a sensibly triggered the abdication crisis And I thought was what was believed at the time and for decades and it was told us kind of romantic story. Other information has come to light since that suggests that actually Edward the IEP, who was a friend of Hitler and visited him at home, have some Nazi sympathies, which may have been another reason that he had to abdicate. Churchill supported the king and clashed with Baldwin on the issue. Churchill pledge loyalty to the new King George the Sixth, who succeeded when his brother Edward B. If abdicated, Churchill described the application as premature and probably quite unnecessary. Bolden resigned to May 1937, almost replaced by Neville Chamberlain, the Foreign Secretary, Anthony A1, reside in February 1938 over Chamberlain's appeasement of miscellany. The same policy he followed later with Hitler. Of course. Churchill warned against appeasement in 1938 and cold for collective action to be taken to the tear German aggression, the Evening Standard start publishing Churchill's fortnightly articles, but the Daily Telegraph began publishing them instead. When Germany annexed Austria, known as the Angeles, Churchill told the comments up the gravity of events cannot be exaggerated. He called for defense pact amongst European states threatened by German expansionism. In September, Germany mobilized to embed the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. Chamberlain side, the Munich agreement on the 30th of September, Churchill described this as a total and unmitigated to fate. In March 1939 with Germany cut up Czechoslovakia, Churchill code from National Coalition to be formed. He grew popular with the public and people called for his return to office. On the day that war was declared, the 3rd of September 1939, Churchill was appointed to the war cabinet amid First Lord of the Admiralty again, he was one of the most high profile ministers of the so-called phony war, the first eight months of the Second World War when they only actions saint by British forces was at say, the first naval battle of World War II was at River Plate on the 13th of December, 1939. Churchill welcome the crews home enthusiastically. Churchill ordered the captain and crew of the destroyer, HMS Cossack to board the German supply ship out mark to free 299 captured British merchants, seafarers on the 16th of February, 1940. And this greatly enhanced his popularity. Under a plant code named Operation Wilfred, the British were to mine Norwegian Walters to stop iron ore shipments from Norvig reaching Germany. When the Allies failed to stop the German occupation of Norway. The comments debate at the government's conduct of the war from the seventh to the ninth of May, 1940. The so-called Norway debate became one of the most significant events in the history of the UK Parliament. The Labor Opposition called for a division of the highest, in effect, a vote of no confidence and Chamberlain's government, there was considerable support for Churchill as possible Prime Minister. But as a member of the government, he had to speak in its defense. The government won the vote, but it's majority was severely reduced and the recalls from national government to be formed, and other words, an emergency wartime government that wasn't aligned to just one party. The next day, the tenth of May, the Germans invaded Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, preparing to invade France, the Labor Party refused to serve under Chamberlain, but would accept another conservative. The possible candidates were Churchill on the Foreign Secretary, Lord Halifax. Halifax felt he couldn't govern effectively as a Lord rather than an NP. So Chamberlin advise King George the SEC to send for Churchill, who was named Prime Minister. Churchill later wrote that his failings, world relief, that he was now in control. He always had a very strong sense of destiny. Like he was called to have that office App Bot time and felt that the whole of his life up until that point had been a preparation for this R and for this trial. Churchill was still unpopular with many conservatives on the whole Labour Party. Chamberlain remained conservative party later until October when he resigned due to ill-health. Churchill convinced the conservative naysayers to support them and he became party later. It's very unusual to have a prime minister who's not later of the apartheid. He formed a five-member War Cabinet comprised of himself, chamberlain, Kennedy, outlay, Lord Halifax, and labors Arthur Greenwood. Servicemen, administers, attended the majority of war cabinet may Deng's, the cabinet change size and membership as the war progressed. And a key member was trade unionist Ernest Bevin as Minister of Labor and national service. Response to criticisms that there had been no clear later responsible for the progress of the war. Churchill created on assumed the position of Minister of Defense. This made him the most powerful wartime Prime Minister in British history. He drafted outside experts into government to fulfill vital roles such as his France, lord Beaverbrook on Frederick Lynn German, he became scientific advisors to the government at the end of May 1940 when the fall of France was eminent and the British Expeditionary Force had retreated, Dunkirk. Halifax suggests that negotiating a pace with the band neutral miscellany, acting as an intermediary. High-level meetings took place from the 26th to the 20th of May, including many with French Premier Paul Randall. Churchill was resolute Hayward fight on even a France foul. His position was tenuous until Chamberlain supported him by getting the support of the Arctic cabinet. In other words, less higher profile unless close to the PM members of the cabinet. He maneuvered Halifax on one over Chamberlain. He couldn't have remained as Prime Minister if both Halifax and Chamberlain, how to pose him? Churchill used his prodigious talent for public speaking to encourage people to commit to the fight. And he made a very famous speech in the highest of comments towards the end. I'm drawing the government. I have nothing to offer blood before it and all of the modes. Before admin a minute on months of struggle and free up. Other thing I will say, the way you all buy the land and my strength to God. The way you log into monstrous tyranny. In the darker lemon book catalog of human crime. If you are, why did our aim? I cannot say one word. Victory. Victory at all costs. In spite of all Cara, along the road, may be victory and I had no survival that we realized. No survival for the video game. No survival for all of the British Empire. Good. No survival for the Irgun impulse of the Adrian's that mankind will move forward towards you go. I pick up my daughter. I feel It's not written, never married men die. My appeal in idle game, the A1. Then, let us go forward together. United had a speech impediment for the whole of his life, but it's still thought of, as I said, positively gifted orator. On Tuesday the 4th of Jane, the French rear guard surrendered anding the British Operation Dynamo, which a vacuum over 338,226 allied servicemen from Dunkirk. Churchill then gave his famous, we shall fight them on the beaches speech which we heard earlier. We must be very careful not to assign to this deliverance the attributes of a victory, worse or not won by evacuations. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France. We shall fight on the seas and oceans. We shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air. We shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be. We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing rods. We shall fight in the fields and in the streets. We shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender. And even if, which I do not for a moment believe this island are large part of it where subjugated on starving. Then our empire beyond the seas armed on, guarded by the British fleet, would carry on the struggle until and God's good time, the new world, with all its power and might steps forth to the rescue and the liberation of the ODE. The allies had been defeated and push back to the north coast of France. In other words, Dunkirk. The Germans initiated foul wrapped up plan to invade the Benelux countries. Italy entered the war on the side of the axis on the 10th of May, 1940, the remarked occupied Paris on the 14th, and the conquest of fronts was completed by the 25th of Jane, it seemed inevitable that Hitler would try and attack Britain. I'm trying to evade Breton. Churchill gave a very famous speech department, what general vague and called the Battle of France is over. I expect that the Battle of Britain as a byte to begin, hitler knows that he will have to break us in this island or lose the war. Let us therefore brace ourselves to our Judy and so bear ourselves that if the British Commonwealth and Empire lasts for a thousand years, man will say this was their finest, are about quota by the finest r is used all the time bars Johnson used it on the day that I was recording this to speech to the parliament and Ukraine, for example, Churchill was determined to fight back and on the 11th of June he ordered the commencement of the Western Desert campaign. It took place in the deserts of Egypt and Libya, and it was in response to the Italian declaration of war. The first operation, operation compass went well. Mussolini asked for German support on early 1941, and hetero said the Africa corpse to AAA commanded by General lieutenant Erwin Rommel. He arrived shortly after Churchill had halted countless and tending to reassign man decrease as the Balkans campaign was entering a crucial phase. In June and July 1940, Churchill ordered the formation of the Special Operations Executive. I'm the command I was the former promoted and carried out subversive activity and Nazi occupied Europe, whilst the latter rib of military targets. Hugh Dalton, Minister of economic warfare, hot political responsibility for the SOA, and reported that Churchill said to him no ego and set Europe at Blair's on the 20th of October, 1940, at the height of the Battle of Britain, Churchill updated the commons on the war. The gratitude of every home and our island and our empire and indeed throughout the world, except in the abodes of the guilty, goes out to the British AB and who undaunted by odds on worried and they're constant challenge and mortal danger are turning the tide of the World War by their progress and their devotion. Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few. The lift FAFSA began the Blitz on the 7th of September 1940. It was particularly intensive and October and November, Churchill no longer feared an invasion, but near the British could not win the war unless the Americans entered the fray. In September 1940, the Americans provided 50 destroyers to the Royal Navy in return for free us best rights and Bermuda, the Caribbean on Newfoundland. An advantage for Britain was that military assets and those bases can be redeployed elsewhere. Churchill was on good terms with US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, with which help secure food, oil, ammunitions along North Atlantic shipping rates. When Roosevelt was re-elected in 1940, implemented a new method of providing necessities to Great Britain basically for free. He persuaded Congress that repayment for this immense the cost, the service, would take the form of defending the US. The policy was known as landless and it was formerly enacted on the 11th of March, 1941. Hitler invaded the Soviet Union on Sunday the 22nd of June, 1941. Churchill had been informed by the codebreakers at Bletchley Park, that's such an attack was eminent. He had tried to warn Stalin via Britain's Ambassador Stafford crypts, but Stalin didn't trust Churchill. Having been well-known for his anti-communist views charts on embarked, if Hitler invaded ****, I would at least make a favorable reference to the devil. In August 1941, Churchill met Roosevelt's I placenta Bay and Newfoundland. On the 14th of August, they issued the Atlantic Charter. It outlined their vision for the future of the world and it's regarded as the basis of the 1942 declaration by the United Nations, upon which the United Nations was founded in 1945. On the seventh to the eighth of December, 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor and then embedded Malaysia. Churchill declared war on Japan. And of course, that also brought the Americans into the war. Three days later, Germany and Italy declared war on the USA. Churchill went to Washington to meet Roosevelt and the first Washington conference code named Arcadia. Roosevelt's viewpoint was Europe first or Germany for us admitting that he prioritized defeating the Nazis in Europe over the fate of the Japanese. It was also great that the first Joint Anglo-American strike would be Operation Torch, the invasion of french North Africa, in other words, Algeria and Morocco. It was planned for spring 1942, but eventually launched in November 1942 when the second battle of L element was already underway in Egypt. Structural address a joint meeting of the US Congress on the 26th of September. That night he had a mild heart attack and was advised that he needed several weeks of bed rest. Nonetheless, two days later he went to auto whereby trend and address the Canadian Parliament. He arrived home in January 1943 to a crisis of confidence in his coalition government and his personal leadership. He decides to face a vote of no confidence of the commons, which he easily one, Operation Crusader had driven back rumbles forces. But on the 21st of January, 1942, Rommel launched a surprise attack, driving the Allies back to Kaizala. The British had been successful in the Battle of the Atlantic, the longest military campaign of the Second World War. Their success was compromised by the introduction of the crate marinas for wrote drag magma, which took Bletchley Park codebreakers idea to decipher. The Japanese were making gains in all theaters and the Far East, especially in Malaysia. When Singapore fell to the Japanese and the 15th of February 1942, Churchill called the worst disaster on largest capitulation in British military history. When shortly afterwards the Germans succeeded on the channel dash a successful naval operation against the allies and the English Channel. Churchill's morale fell to its lowest point during the war. By the end of April 1942, the Japanese had occupied most of Burma. Counter offensive was slowed by the monsoon season on a cyclone as well as disorganization and band gap on Bihar. The band golf famine of 1942 came about due to natural disasters, the curtailment of rice imports from Burma per administration and then flesh and 2.1 to 3 million people died. From December 1942, senior officials in India asked London for grant and ports. The colonial authorities fail to realize how serious the film and walls on their response was an apt. Churchill's government was criticized for failing to respond with more food imports. Which the government ascribed to difficulties with wartime ship it. When the British finally realize the full extent of the famine and September 1943, Churchill ordered the transportation of 131 thousand tons of Iraqi and Australian grant band Gal. The war cabinet agreed to send 200 thousand tons by the end of the year, 100 thousand tons of rice on 176 thousand tons of weight or important by the end of 1942. That October Churchill wrote to the new viceroy of MDS, Lord weevil instructing him to end the father. In February 1944, Operation Overlord, which was the code name for the battle of Normandy, placed heavy demands on allied shipping and Churchill cabled wherever I will certainly help you all. I can't, but you must not ask the impossible. The government turned down requests for grand shipments throughout 1944 and then October wherever told Churchill the vital problems of India are being traded by His Majesty's Government with neglect, even sometimes with hostility and contempt. The impact of British policies on the death toll during the famine is subject to debate amongst academics. The Soviet Foreign Affairs Minister, via chest love Molotov arrived in London on the 20th of May, 1942, before heading to Washington on the 28th, he was there to sign a friendship pact, but it contains certain conditions regarding territory and Poland and the Baltic. Churchill and even worked for compromise on a 21-year treaty was signed with the question of borders put on hold. Molotov wanted a second front in Europe, but Churchill made no promises. Churchill related Roosevelt's on the 27th, but he was pleased with the negotiations. On the 26th of bank robber launched Operation Venice or counter offensive beginning of the battle of Kaizala. The Allies were driven out of Libya and defeated, losing to Brooke on the 21st of June. Churchill was with Roosevelt when he heard this news, the surrender of 35 thousand trips, walls along with Singapore at the heaviest blue and his words that he received in the war, the first battle of LLM man and July put paid to the axis advance. It was followed by victory for the allies at the Battle of alum alfalfa. And September, Churchill returned to Washington on the 17th of June. He and Roosevelt agreed on the implementation of Operation Torch as a necessary precursor to an invasion of Europe. Dwight D. Eisenhower had been appointed by Roosevelt as commanding officer of the European theater of operations of the United States Army, ETO USA. Churchill managed to obtain 300 Sherman tanks and a 100 Harvard serves to be sent to North Africa. He returned to Britain on the 25th of June to face another vote of no confidence, which again, he easily one. Although facing health problems, he visited the trips in North Africa and August to raise morale. He then went to Moscow to visit Scollon. He was accompanied by Roosevelt special envoy Averil Harriman, Churchill H2 long meetings with Stalin between the 12th and 16th of August, 1941. They go on quite well, but the Germans were advancing in all theaters of war style and desperately wanted a second front in Europe. But Churchill didn't give a different answer than the one he had given Molotov and may all his visit to Cairo, Churchill had appointed field Marshall Alexander as Commander-in-Chief of the Middle East theater. General William got commander of the Army, was shot down and killed on route to Cairo three days before he was to be replaced by General Montgomery. On the 17th of August, Churchill returned to Cairo from Moscow and saw that the combination of Alexander Montgomery was promising. He returned to England on the 21st of August. Rubble began his final offensive nine days later, at the end of 1942, the title turned in favor of the allies with victory and the crucial battles of LLM, man and Stalingrad, the Germans were not on the defensive. In a famous speech of the Lord Mayor's luncheon and match and highest London. Churchill said, this is not the end. It is not even the beginning of the end, but it is perhaps the end of the beginning. January 1942, Churchill met Roosevelt's EPA Casablanca Conference code named symbol, general shelter, go represented the French fray forces. Stalin could not attend because of the situation and style and grab at the time. Although Churchill was doubtful, the allies committed themselves to securing unconditional surrender by the Axis powers and the castle blanket declaration. Churchill's journey to Cairo or donna Cyprus, Cairo, Ghana, that Algiers. And then he arrived home the seventh of February after an absence of a month, he addressed the commons on the 11th of February, but became seriously ill with pneumonia the next day. He needed to calm the less for a month on move to checkers, the country residents of the Prime Minister of the UK. You return to London and to work on the 15th of March, 1943, he met Roosevelt and May in Washington and in Quebec. And August and November Churchill and Roosevelt met Chinese generalist mode Chiang Kai-shek at the Cairo Conference, which was code named sextant, The most important conference of the year. It was from the 20th of November to the first of December and Tehran code Namgyal trachea. He met with Roosevelt and Stalin for the rest of the so-called Big Three Mei dance. The others were at Yalta on Potsdam. In 1945, Roosevelt and Stalin persuaded Churchill to agree to the opening of a second front in Europe. It was agreed that Germany would be divided after the war, but no decisions were made as to where it would be divided. On the way home, Roosevelt and Churchill met with Turkish president is met in Cairo, but couldn't persuade them to commit to the Turks joining the allies. Churchill went from Cairo to China's on the 10th of December. He was a guest of Eisenhardt. Whilst there he became seriously ill with atrial fibrillation and abnormal heart rhythm. Specialists were drafted to take over his care and he remanded tunas until after Christmas. Clementine on the civil servant Job Kosovo came to keep him company. On the 27th of December, they had its America as Churchill continued to come the last, Churchill flew to Gibraltar on the 14th of January, 1944, then sailed home. He returned to London on the 18th of January and surprised MPs by attending Prime Minister's questions that afternoon. Churchill had been abroad or seriously ill for 371 days. In autumn 1942, Churchill was asked by Eisenhower where the Western Allies should launch their first attack in Europe. The Americans believed across channel operation to be utterly impossible. Churchill advise them that slitting the soft belly of the Mediterranean by invading Sicily than Italy after they had to fade at the Africa corpse in North Africa would be a good plan. The invasion of Sicily began on the 9th of July. It was over on the 17th of August. Churchill supported advancing towards Rome, but the Americans and tan to the sand forces to England to prepare for Operation Overlord, which was planned for spring 1944. Churchill had reservations about overlord fairing that an Anglo-American force could not match the Verma. He prefer proposals for operation Jupiter and invasion of Norway, Italy, Qing victory Manuel dismissed misleading or the 25th of July and appointed Marshall Bedelia as prime minister. He negotiated with the allies on the arm ASIS, of course, Ebola was signed on the 3rd of September 1944. The Germans then took control of Attlee. Churchill preferred Italy over Normandy as a rate to Germany, but worried about the German presence at Solara know the allies gained the bridgehead on SEO, but did not break the stalemate. Montecassino was not overcome until mid-May 1944 on the Allies were finally able to advance on Rome, which was captured on the 4th of June. Churchill change direction on wholeheartedly worked on overlord. From that point, he had many meetings attended by Eisenhower and general Walter battle Smith, Churchill's Chief of Staff. The UK developed Mulberry harbors, temporary wartime harbors, one of which is pictured below here. Churchill also favorite the use of Allied air par. As D-Day approached the day the invasion would commence, Churchill had grit mood fluctuations as a fair to the outcome. Widespread social and structural reforms were needed at home. But Churchill sole focus was on winning the war. The date of D-Day, the invasion of Normandy was set for the sixth of June, 1944. I'm Churchland tended to be present in person, which actually caused a little bit of consternation. And the armed forces, the king veto Churchill's attendance, saying that as head of the three armed forces, the army, navy, and RIF, he should be the one to go. The death toll during Jane was at thighs and Churchill had anticipated at 20 thousand on D-Day alone. Churchill went to Normandy on the 12th of June to visit Montgomery, was returning to London that evening the first V1 flying bombs were launched. He returned to normal day from 20-second to the 23rd of July. He saw the Mulberry harbors at Cherbourg and our a martian. He met with Roosevelt's from the 12th to the 16th of September 1944 and Quebec, they reached agreement on a plan for the allied occupation of Germany, which would see the niche and demilitarized a date and industrialized. Eden strongly opposed AT and later persuaded Churchill to disown it. Us Secretary of State Cardinal Health also opposed it and told Roosevelt, and it was unfeasible. From the ninth to the 19th of October, Churchill attended the fourth Moscow Conference, code name Tolstoy. There he and A1 met Stalin and Molotov. The conferences known for the percentages agreement in which Stalin, Churchill carved up the post-war Balkans. Soviet armies had answered Romania and Bulgaria. The agreement was that Russia would have 90% control of Romania and 75% control of Bulgaria. The UK and the USA would have 90% control of Greece, Hungary and Yugoslavia would be 50% H. And that's according to Wikipedia. In 1950 it, after the publication of Churchill Second World War, the Soviets deny that Stalin had a grade to this imperialist proposal. The second of the big three conferences took place at Yalta on the side cost of the Crimean Peninsula from the fourth to the 12th of February 1945. It had huge ramifications for the post-war world. And that at discussed the establishment of a United Nations Organization on Poland postwar status, which Churchill viewed as symbolizing the future of the whole of Eastern Europe. Churchill faced opposition regarding Poland. 27 Tory MPs voted against him on the matter was to better than the comments at the end of the month. By this stage, Roosevelt's had become seriously ill and was enabled to support Churchill. Another outcome of Yalta was Operation kill Hall, the forced repatriation of Soviet citizens and Allied zones to the Soviet Union. This was later extended to all Eastern European refugees, even those who were anti-communists. If you were really not happy to live in a communist country tough, you are going to be forcibly sent back. Kayla Hall took place for the 14th of August, 1946 to the ninth of May 1947. The bombing of Dresden, which is definitely a blot on Churchill's copy book on the knights of the 13th to the 15th of February 1945, someone thighs and 200 British and US bombers attacked the German city of Dresden, which was created with winded and refugees from the Eastern Front. This was part of a wider area bombing campaign or by Churchill in January, which he believed would shorten the war. In 2010, an independent commission report of the number of fatalities as between twenty two thousand, seven hundred and twenty-five thousand, many of them civilians. Churchill is believed to have regretted the bombing. He restricted area bombing on the 20th of March and wrote a memorandum to General Ismay for the Chief of Staff, committing the destruction of Dresden remains a serious query against the conduct of allied bombing. I feel the need for more precise concentration upon military objectives rather than old mirror acts of terror and wanton destruction, however impressive. Citing the journalist and historian Max Hastings, Andrew Marr, the political journalist at the baby's say about the memo, was a calculated political attempt to distance himself from the rise and controversy surrounding the area offensive. Allies accepted Germany's surrender on the seventh of May 1945, Churchill broadcast to the nation the next day telling the people that a ceasefire would come into effect on all fronts at one minute past midnight on the ninth of May 1945, the royal family and Churchill appeared on the balcony of Buckingham Palace before a vast rejoice and cried. He then went to Y TO where he told the crowd, god bless you all, this is your victory and our long history. We have never seen a grid or dive and miss everyone man or woman has done their best. He asked artists Bevin, to step forward to share the applause, but Bevin replied, No, Winston, This is your day. And he then conducted the cried at the singing up for his, a jolly good fellow to Churchill. Churchill broadcast again predicting that Japan would surrender and the coming months, the Japanese surrendered on the 15th of August, 1945. There had not been a general election for almost a decade, but no one was approaching. Labor administers refused to continue the wartime coalition and Churchill resigned as prime minister on the 23rd of May 1945. Later that day, he accepted the king's invitation to form a national government, sometimes called the caretaker administering. It was made up a Conservatives, National Liberals on a few non-party figures, but there were no members of labor or the official Liberal Party. Churchill continue to carry out the role of PM representing the UK at the Potsdam Conference in which the three leading allied nations plan for pace. He was not officially reappointed until the 20th of May. Churchill fared poorly at Potsdam, where he upset the Chinese, irritated the Americans, was too much led by Stalin, the Labor Party, while in the general election by a landslide and climate, athlete returned from Potsdam as Prime Minister with Bevin as his foreign secretary. Churchill had not run on impressive campaign. He had made the magic alphas saying that the Labor Party would need some form of Gestapo to support his propaganda. Athlete had responded to this well and a broadcast in which he said, the voice we had last night was thought of Mr. Churchill, but the mind was thought of lord Beaverbrook to Clementine suggestion that the election defeat might be a blessing in disguise. Churchill recorded, at the moment it seems very effectively disguised. The labor victory was mostly due to a need for reform of health education, that other key areas domestically, Churchill still have personal popularity. Some voters had wrongly believed he could still be prime minister if there was a labor majority. Churchill remained as later of the Conservative Party and that's actually fairly uncommon. The advocate and British politics is that a party later resigns if their party loses the election. In 1946 on a trip to the USA, he gave his famous Iron Curtain speech about the USSR and its formation of the Eastern Bloc. Addressing President treatment at Westminster College, Missouri on the 5th of March, he said, from statin and the Baltic to Triassic and the Adriatic, an Iron Curtain has descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest, and Sophia. All these famous cities and the population is around them lie and what I must call the Soviet sphere. Churchill wanted closer collaboration between the UK and the USA to counter the par of the USSR. He called for special relationship between the British Commonwealth and Empire and the United States, but emphasize the need for cooperation to take place under the United Nations Charter. Churchill promoted a vision of a united states of Europe and was an early proponent of pan-European ASM. He supported the creation of the Council of Europe in 1949 and the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951. He told success of Irish ambassadors to London that he still hoped for Arish reunification. Bed as part of the British Empire with a degree of autonomy. When labor, while the 1950s general election, it was with a much reduced majority. Churchill continue to lead the opposition. In 1951, the conservatives won the general election with the majority of only 17 states. And Churchill once again became prime minister. He remained in office until the fifth of April 1955 when he resigned due to ill-health. His successor onto the agent served as foreign secretary during Churchill second tenure as Prime Minister, Churchill was mostly concerned with foreign affairs, although he charged Harold Macmillan, another future Prime Minister, with building 300 thousand new hires a year. Churchill was 77 when he took office again and had tab a series of minor strokes. By December, George the sixth was concerned about Churchill's health and considered asking him to stop done in favor of A1 other. The king died before he could carry their site. Elizabeth the Second exceeded and she had a close relationship with Churchill. It was thought that he would retire after her coronation in May 1953, but A1 became seriously ill and Churchill and Christ his workload by taking over at the Foreign Office. A1 was unable to work until the end of the year and never return to full health. When Stalin died on the 5th of March, 1953, Churchill Soldiers Summit with the Soviets, but Eisenhower would not attend varying, the Soviets would use it for propaganda. Churchill described Eisenhardt to COVID as both weekend stupid. He did not believe that Eisenhower appreciated the threat of the H-bomb. He met with Eisenhardt and French Prime Minister shows have lasagna at the Bermuda Conference in 1953. He also met Eisenhardt, the White House in January 1954. But to no avail, the Soviets proposed a four-part summit, but it didn't take place until the 18th of July, 1955 after Churchill had retired, please, government has pursued a policy of decolonization. Churchill had worked hard to seek a friendship with the USA, which he felt would secure world paste trim and met him and some issues but Saul support of the UK and the Middle East as supporting colonialism. And it was clear to the Americans that the British Empire was in fast decline. On the 23rd of June, 1953, Churchill became paralyzed on one side due to a major stroke. This was kept secret and Churchill went to chart boat to recuperate. He made a full recovery by November, but he resigned in April lighting 55 and was succeeded by a1. Elizabeth the Second wanted to create Churchill has Duke of London, but his son round-off, he would have inherited the victim, objected. He did become a member of the Order of the Garter though the highest order of chivalry and became Sir Winston Churchill. Churchill mid many visits to the USA, which Clementine believed was because he wanted to repair damage done by A1's handling of the Suez Crisis, the invasion of Egypt by Israel in 1956, followed by the UK and France. Churchill remanded and pay until 1964 when he was stood dying at the general election. He had been an MP since 1900 with only a two-year break from 192224. And I had represented five constituencies. He spent most of his retirement and chart well, and it has London residents at Hyde Park gate and frequent at the High Society of Law, POSIX on the French Riviera, the age of 87. He broke his hip and Monte-Carlo. He was flown to a London hospital where he stayed for three weeks. He never fully recovered. John F. Kennedy, mid Churchland honor, a US citizen in 1963 are very rare honor, but he was unable to attend the ceremony at the White House. Churchill suffered a major stroke on the 12th of January, 1965 and died on the 24th of January. He was accorded a state funeral like the Duke of Wellington and William Gladstone. And honor usually reserved for monarchs and high-ranking members of the royal family. A detailed plan for his funeral have been finished in 1958, code named Operation Hope naught. His coffin land stared at Westminster Hall on the funeral ceremony took place at some Paul's Cathedral on the 30th of January. His coffin was then taken by boat to Waterloo Station or from thereby a special translucent Martin's church blending where he was buried in the family plot near his birthplace of platinum palace. He was praised by many internationally, including his political animate Gandy. In 1973, Clementine unveiled his statute and Parliament Square. Other memorials included Churchill College at Cambridge on the Churchill museum and cabinet WAR rooms. And 2002 British pool of 447,423 votes name Churchill as the greatest Bri 76. Life During World War 2 : In this video, we're going to talk about what happened to people's lives during the Second World War. Something we very much identify with World War II as rationing. Rationing was introduced in Britain in January 1942, counter shortages of food and other commodities. The Ministry of third was responsible for overseeing rationing. Adults and children were issued with Ration books on coupons, which were required in order to purchase certain goods. So you couldn't just go into a shop and buy certain things. You have to show that you hadn't already used up your alliance. Basically, basic foodstuffs which were rationed, included sugar, mate thoughts, bacon, and cheese. High swipes were required to register with specific retailers to shop for household supplies. There was a point system for ten foods, dried fruits, cereals, and biscuits. The number of points given to a certain item could change due to availability and consumer demand. Milk and eggs were prioritized for those most in need, for example, children and pregnant women. It wasn't uncommon to cue for a long time to find out that the adenine needed had run night by the time you go to the top of the queue, fruit and vegetables were never rationed others somewhere in short supply, and people were encouraged to grow vegetables and gardens and allotments. Public parks also started to be used for growing food. And this game was called dig for victory. As well as food. Other commodities were rationed, including petrol in 1939, I'm clothes and June 1941, I remember my grandmother was quite upset. She couldn't have an actual wedding dress because she'd used up her fabric coupons. So she had to get married in a seat, which I think she was always a little bit disappointed. A byte, soap was rationed and February 1942. So if you can imagine there being a limited amount of soap per family, the kind of squabbles that thought would've led to some items were rationed after the war, such as Brad and July 1946. So the shortages continued after the war and the black market thrived at greatly inflated prices. People could acquire items with ICT, coupons and spirits or petty criminals acquired unsold items by questionable mains. Shopkeepers sometimes kept items behind the counter. By March 19412300 people have been prosecuted for fraud on dishonesty. Rationing didn't end until the 1950's when most previously rush into commodities came off the ration, as it was known, mate was the last commodity to be taken off. Rationing and food rationing cease completely. And 1954, byte nine years after the end of the war. Political Jenny wrote to her sister, you are commencing rations. We get very little bit about and I even children's sweets and the Alliance for Hs, two ounces per week. And only children can have oranges. Alliance than nothing for adults ever since the war, bananas and lemons also, we do not complain, but some people must find it very hard. We have one shillings worth of meat awake. Big ovens are not necessarily night. However, there's too much of this to write a byte. If only the war would end, most automobiles or off the road, no one must use one unless for very special reasons to be applied for. Of course, all drip rate stuff and clothing rationed. Everyday necessities, things you use every day are in short supply and that must have had a huge impact on day-to-day life. Evacuates. Now we might have a slightly fairy tale view of evacuees during the second world war based on books such as The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe by CS lewis. Good night Mr. Tom. The film bad knobs and brim sticks. Many stories have been told about child evacuees during the Second World War. But it wasn't just children who were evacuated. And some of the marks they had a very hard time ago. Some of them thrived, of course. Let's just hear a little bit of byte evacuation during the Second World War, the evacuation of children from urban and industrial areas likely to be bummed was named Operation Pied Piper. The country was divided into three types of areas, evacuation, neutral, and reception. Evacuation areas. In other words, the areas that you were evacuated from if you were a child, included London, Birmingham, and Glasgow. Industrial cities likely to be bombed. Reception areas that was where you were sent to included Kent, assign, glia, and Wales. Neutral areas didn't sent or received evacuees. Not all evacuees were children. Evacuees were actually split into four groups, school-age children, the infirm, pregnant women, or mothers with babies or preschool age children so that they could remain with their children. The evacuations came having plans since the Anderson report was released in November 1930, it compiled by committee headed by John Anderson. London County kind slow began requisitioning buses and trends. And the summer of 1939, following a large registration of evacuees and belittling accommodation. On the morning of the 21st of August, 19393 days before war was declared, an evacuation order was given for the next day and a mad scramble began. Children gathered in their schools. And the first of September and operation Pied Piper swung into effect. It was a huge project. I'm thighs and volunteers helped. There were 1589 assembly points in London alone, and trends ran out of the capitals main stations every nine minutes for nine ours. Some London children were evacuated by ship along with hams, ceilings, great yarn with Felix DO and low staffed. They were helped by teachers, railway staff, local authority staff and members of the Women's voluntary service, the WBS, who comforted frightened children and gave them food. I really was a horrible situation. They didn't actually know where they were being sent to, and they didn't know when they would see their parents and families again, 1.5 million people were evacuated. And the first three days of operation Pied Piper. In England, this included 673 thousand schoolchildren, 406 thousand mothers and young children on 3 thousand pregnant women. Children were luggage labels, pen to their coats with their names, school and evacuation authority, separated from their parents. Children were accompanied on the journey by teachers and WBS members. The children didn't know whether we're going or when they would return, as we mentioned earlier, and many of them were very little and scared. So it's quite emotional for everybody involved. Children were expected to carry a kits recommended by the Ministry of Health, handbag or KS containing the child's gas mask, a change of underclothing. Nightclubs has shoes or premises, spare stockings or socks or toothbrush, a comb, tile, soap and bass clef handkerchiefs and if possible, a warm coat or Macintosh. Each child should bring a pocket of food for the day. Many parents felt that this was the best way to protect their children from the impending bombing. Propaganda posters encouraged participation and the evacuation scheme, but not all families chose to take part. Parents who did take part, how to wait for several days until a postcard arrived to let them know whether children where you are sending your child or for your children off into the unknown, which actually must have been frightening for the parents as well as for the children. The idea of comps for children run by teachers have been suggested, but the government chose to build up them in private homes while no one knew how long they were going to need to be evacuated for. The idea of them living in a family seemed a bit closer to a normal life if they ended up being there for years. It was compulsory for assigned homes to accept evacuates. You didn't actually have a choice about that. Host families were paid ten shillings in six months or £26 for the first child, and it shillings and six months for each additional child. Places were assessed on the accommodation rather than the hosts aptitude for caring for children. Some hosts resented being forced to raise children, and some children tried to run away. You think of the novel, goodnight Mr. Tom, for example, where the curmudgeon lee, old bachelor, suddenly finds himself raising a child. That seems like the stuff of literature, but actually that did happen in real life. It was just whether or not you had a spare room that was considered important, not whether you could actually care for children or whether the children were happy to be there. Wealthy children were more likely to comply as they were used to going and staying with relatives during the summer holidays. And so they'd stayed in other people's houses. And that wasn't the same for the working class. Working class children are thought to have had a harder time adopting to the situation. The so-called phony war. The first eight months of the war when nothing much happens, you have a false sense of security. So many children returned home. Nearly half of evacuees were home by christmas, thought year than France fell in June 1940 on the Blitzkrieg began. It hit London cabin trade, Birmingham, Swansea, Plymouth, and Sheffield. The South Coast was changed from a reception area to an evacuation area under threat of invasion until a 100 thousand children were evacuated or re-evaluated to SIF replaces. This evacuation continued until the end of 1941. Even after the bloodstained your remand, sporadic attacks continued. And in 1944, Hitler began the use of V1 flying bombs on V2 ballistic missiles. This began operation regulate, the final major of occupation of the Second World War. It ran from July to September 1944. I saw more than a million people evacuated from danger zones. In 1939, dim virulent, known as the forces sweetheart, one of the most famous voices of the Second World War sang a song called goodnight children everywhere, written by Gabi Rogers and Harry Phillips to comfort evacuate children. So let's hear that song die children. Me Think saw your header. Go in a sleepy little bit. Sleepy time is Dr. Tucker in your song for mommy things off your head upon. You'll find a kiss. Children who had remained behind during the evacuations grew more than their evacuated pairs. Nobody knows why that is some theories. Kim a byte, such as that children out in the countryside just exercise more. But this was all sort of debunked by Anna Freud, who eventually proved that emotional well-being is important for a child's growth. When the war ended, evacuees returned home, some further homes have been bombed or their families had gone. And in some cases their families no longer wanted them. But for most it was a joyful reunion. The readjustment to city and family life was hard for some children on for some parents. The children were in many cases, four or five years older than when they left. A totally different stage of development, and many actually have different accents. These are the memories of Jim Woods who was evacuated from Lambeth aged six. I remember going into the station and there were literally hundreds of children lined up waiting to go. Everyone had a cardboard box with their gas masks send and a label tied to their coats to identify them if they got lost. We ended up in South Wales. The first night we slept on the floor of the Churchill. The next day my sister and I were allocated to him, Mr. Mrs. race. At first, it was quite frightening being separated from your mother and not understanding what was going on. However, after a few days we settled down. I'm quite enjoyed being in Wales. After living in London, we were not surrounded by countryside. The village we lived in was very small. There reminds close-up by and we had great fun exploring the slag heaps. My sister and I got on very well with Mr. and Mrs. race. There were upset sometimes on one occasion we decided to go home to London. We followed the railway track. They thought of it, take us back to London, but after following it for about a mile, we discovered it was a railway line used by the local minds. Some children had an even bigger culture shock and those were the children of the Kindertransport. This was a nine-month rescue program of Jewish children aged under 17 from Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, on Gdansk. It was authorized by the British government and carried out by individuals in several countries on by various religious and secular groups. It saved 10 thousand children by sending them to the UK. It began after the Kristallnacht pilgrims of Jewish people on the ninth and 10th of November 1938. And it mostly ended on the 1st of September 1939. Others, some children were rescued as late as 1940. The term Kindertransport children's transport, Wilson used at the time, that's a term that came into use in the late 20th century. After Hitler's rise to power, many Jews left Germany, though it became increasingly difficult for them to obtain vases. American President Franklin D. Roosevelt called a conference on the refugee crisis as German Jews find it difficult to identify countries that would offer them asylum. So if they could get ICT, it wasn't clear where they could go. Basically, on the 6th of July 1938, representatives from 32 countries matter Evian labor. And the only thing resulting from this conference was an agreement to meet again. Persecution of Jews in Germany and Austria escalated, culminating in the Kristallnacht, the night of broken glass. There were officially sanctioned anti-Jewish riots and the thighs and synagogues were burned. Over 7,500 Jewish businesses were related or vandalized. Hospitals, schools, cemeteries, and homes were damaged on thousands of Jewish men were arrested and sent to concentration counts. 91 Jewish people were killed that night and many more died later in the concentration camps, jews were permitted to leave Germany as long as they left with ICT money or possessions. But very few countries open their borders to them. After Kristallnacht, the Jewish refugee console in the UK, a call for action on the House of Commons held to debate on the 21st of November, 1938, the British government had imposed a cap on Jewish migration to Palestine up that time. Campaigning on the part of those sympathetic to Jews in Germany was successful in obtaining a government decision to permit an unspecified number of children aged under 17 to enter the UK to assure their ultimate resettlement, a 50 bond, how to be posted for each of these children, who it was assumed would reconnect with their parents once the crisis had passed. And sadly, we know that many of the parents didn't survive. The children traveled with temporary travel documents. The first transport left Germany on the 1st of December 1930. It, it arrived at hydrogen, England the next day with a 196 children from a Jewish orphanage in Berlin, which had been burned on Kristallnacht. Subsequent transports came from Vienna, Berlin, Prague, and other major cities crossing borders with the Netherlands and Belgium on arriving in England by say, most of the children never saw their parents again. Many fifth groups, including Christians, especially Quakers on Jews, collaborated on the effort to rescue and find homes for Jewish children. Many often very brave individuals were involved in this rescue. Lola hand barbaric was a member of a prominent Jewish banking family, and she sat up the rescue framework in 1933 before emigrating herself. The Jewish businessman Wilfred Israel, used his network to secure passage for many Jewish people. Former Prime Minister of the UK, suddenly Baldwin established the Lord bolt when funds for refugees broadcasting on the BBC and December 1938 to raise awareness of their plight. Other key figures where by Walter horizontal Windham dates rebecca safe, Rabbi Solomon shin fail to rescue the thighs and orthodox Jewish children, Nicholas Winton later, Sir Nicholas, He's saved 669 children from Czechoslovakia, working with Trevor Chadwick, Doreen Warner, and Bilbao exotic. Not the interesting thing at bites her necklace was he didn't actually tell his family what he had done. And when they find out it was a surprise on I've included a video and the notes of this section. The thoughts Life program that used to air in the UK, where there's a room full of several 100 people and the question is asked, Are there any audience members here who owe their lives to Sir Nicholas? And the whole entire room stood up because it was both children that he had rescued on their descendants. The Quaker Jane horror guided a plan full of children out of Prague. She was joined and the rescue of children by fellow quicker birth or brassy. Social workers in Vienna took risks to rescue children, such as front seat down a bar glow, who became the guardian of children left behind and Vienna. Norbert Waldheim and the other members of the youth movement in Berlin were involved. Waldheim escorted several transports and he actually refused to sit on the last one as he didn't want to leave his wife and child, he was sent to Auschwitz in 1943. Get rid of Maya, a dutch christian, pail directly to SS officer Adolf Eichmann in Vienna. She then allowed the escape of 600 children on one train alone. She also smuggled children onto a ship and Marcy that was headed to Palestine on the 14th of May, 1948. She sped children through the burning city of Amsterdam to catch the Frederick photograph and which was headed for England. That day. Rotterdam was bombed on the Netherlands, surrounded to the Germans. So she got the mike Just-In-Time. The ship was actually fired on by German war plans. On arriving in the UK, children who already had sponsors were taken to London. Those were the height sponsors were sent to holiday counts until the host families skills or hostels could be fine for them. Organizations involved and could be high breadth. The refugee Children's Movement, the YMCA Young Men's Christian Association, the Society of Friends, so the Quakers, the chief rabbi's religious emergency console on other organizations. Private donations not just of money but have clothes on, actually have high xyz kept the project afloat. The children were dispersed throughout the UK and few of them spoke English. Those over 14 without sponsors often underwent training and joined the workforce. And domestic service or agriculture quite often. Most of the host family's Jewish and non-Jewish developed strong relationships with the children in their care. But some children were abused or maltreated. When they reached the advocate teens, some of the children joined the British, Australian military to fight the Nazis. In the spring of 1940, there was public hysteria regarding Nazi sympathizers posing a threat within the UK on the pretext of stopping them collaborating with the Nazis, Austrian and German Jews and non-Jews as well as Italians and some others were interned by the British government. I don't know how they couldn't believe that Jewish people would have sympathized with the Nazis, but they did actually think this, uh, thighs and boys and girls aged over 1600 arrived to the Kindertransport were interned on the Isle of Man and other sites. Some male can do transportation percent to Canada on the sand ships as German POWs. Others were sent to Australia aboard the done era known as the house ship because of it's overcrowded conditions on the brutality of the British troops escorting them. A German U-boat sank the Arun Dora star and July 194800 of the 1200 and attorneys aboard died. Most were German and Austrian. This turned British public opinion against internment. Many had been deported for return to Britain. This is the story of bulb Karch. Aye, Bob wasn't his original name that was given to him by the Scottish family that he ended up living with. And this is from an interview with him and The Guardian. I didn't really know where I was going. There were about 200 children are not transport and we were all to say the least a bit nervous. You are concerned, excited. I'm most of us pursued the idea that we were going on an adventure and the of course, our parents were becoming as soon as they got their papers, he was carrying his small regulation sick kids and how to stamp collection confiscated by Nazis at the Dutch border. He carried no family photos are memorabilia. My parents were so intent on not making it seem like a parting, but they didn't include anything which might suggest we wouldn't see each other. Again. Conscription changed everyday life and family life a lot in the UK during the Second World War, Neville Chamberlain introduced conscription on the 27th of April, 1939, despite having promised not to do so previously. The Labour and Liberal parties oppose the move due to what Weston Churchill described as the ancient and deep rooted prejudice which has always existed in England against compulsory military service. Climates outlay leader of the Labour Party set, whilst prepared to take all necessary steps to provide for the safety of the nation and the fulfillment of its international obligations. This highest regrets that His Majesty's Government, in breach of their pledges should abandon the voluntary principle which has not failed to provide the manpower needed for defense. And as of opinion that the measure proposed as ill-conceived. And so far from adding material to the effect of defense of the country will promote division and discouraged the national effort. And as further evidence, the government's conduct of affairs throughout these critical times does not merit the confidence of the country or this heist. Not only opposed, but quite strongly opposed the idea of conscription. Parliament passed the military training act by three hundred and eighty, one hundred and forty three votes. And so conscription became law. Manage 2021 were not required to undertake military training full-time for six months. Parliament also pass legislation to protect some occupations from conscription, known as reserved occupations. These included railway on dock workers, farmers and teachers. Agricultural records on light housekeepers, engineering had the highest number of exemptions. Employers could ask for essential staff not to be conscripted. 200 thousand men were granted deferments this way. By the summer of 1939300 thousand people have volunteered for the armed forces and 500 thousand for the civil defense services. Men who were kept at home were often subjected to criticism and the community when they were out in a byte not in a uniform. When the war broke out, the regular army and reserves numbered 400 thousand after the territorial army. On the first day of the war, parliament passed the national services brackets armed forces act, making all managed at ten to 41 liable to be conscripted. Men were called up. That's the phrase that was used in order of age with the 2223 year olds called first, the rollout of conscription was actually quite slow at first. Provision was made for conscientious objectors. And the first batch of transcriptase age twenty two, twenty three. Twenty two out of every thighs and objected our set before conscientious objection tribunals as the top. And in the First World War, the percentage of cases rejected by the tribunals range from 2% in London to 27% in southwest Scotland, as each tribunal had a different attitude towards conscientious objection. The attitude of the chairman of the committee was the critical element of the outcome. Basically, the longer the war progressed, the lower the number of conscientious objectors. By summer 194816 and every thighs and objected. Man could call for postponement of the coal up due to severe personal hardship. More than 200 thousand such applications were accepted during the course of the war. And many of these applications where our renewed, for example, you could argue that you maybe had a widowed mother on you, but the only male member of the family laughed and so you have to provide for your family. Certain situations were accepted as being a reasonable excuse for not going to war. The women's auxiliary territorial service was created just before the war started to compensate for those men conscripted into military service. Women work does orderlies, drivers, postal workers, butchers, bakers, and ammunition and spectrum. And of course, a very famous driver during the Second World War was princess Elizabeth Moy, Queen Elizabeth the Second. By 1941, Britain was short of workers and vital industries. Ernest Bevin, the Ministry of Labor, asked women to volunteer, saying, I have to tell the women that I cannot offer them a delightful life. They will have to suffer some inconveniences, but I want them to come forward in the spirit of determination to help us through. Winston Churchill decided that legislation was needed to ensure there weren't enough women workers favorite calling women up by age group. On the 18th of December, 1941, the National Service Act was passed requiring man to carry out some form of national service up to the age of 68, including military service for those aged under 51. This was because not enough man had volunteered for police and civil defense work. Unmarried women and widows without children aged 20 to 30 were also called up. These women could choose between auxiliary services on jobs and important industries. The Women's Services had a reputation for impropriety, which discouraged volunteering. One young woman wrote, I can lay my hands on my heart and say truthfully that I have not yet met a woman in the twenties who is not in an awful state or bike conscription. Married women were later called on to do work related civilian work. Although pregnant women and mothers of young children were exempted from any kind of conscription. Muriel can work to the munitions factory and diagonal, which was dangerous work and she tells us a byte for danger. On one occasion a bomb hit the factory before we were given permission to go to the shelter, the department went up. I saw several people flying through the air and I just ran home. I was suffering from shock. I was suspended for six weeks without pay. They would've been saved if they'd been allowed to go home after the first alarm. It was a terrible job, but we have no option. We all had to do war work. We were risking our lives and the same way as the soldiers were. The summer of 19.5412 million man had joined the army and by the end of the war that number had risen to two million, nine hundred and twenty thousand, one hundred and forty four thousand and seventy nine British soldiers were killed. 239,575 were wounded. On 152,079 were taken prisoner. The Royal Air Force consisted of 1,208,843 men and women. 70,253 were lost and Operations, the highest proportion of deaths took place in the Navy, which lost 9.3% of its personnel of 939,051 thighs and Royal Navy sailors were killed on a further 30 thousand from the merchant services. Another form of defense and Britain's was their home guard, also known as Dad's Army. The Home Guard numbered 1.7 million man by the end of the war. It was considered Britain's last line of defense. And it was formed around the 14th of May 1940 when Secretary of War onto the A1 broadcasts and the PEO for bad age 1765 to enroll and the local defense volunteers, the Aldi V. Prior to this, the government didn't support the idea of voluntary groups taking military matters into their own hands. So they kind of be like vigilantes answering to no one. But the formation of militias along the English coast changed their minds and how to become something a bit organized. By the end of 1940, over a million men had volunteered 250 thighs and taught expressed interests. And the first 24 hours after eight months broadcast the name LTV was chance to the Home Guard, which sounded a bit more inspiring. The home guard included those not able to enter the regular army due to age or occupation. For example, my grandfather, who was the manager of a jailers business, who had asked for him not to be sent to war, ended up in the home guard. The age range for the Home Guard was not strictly enforced, but those older than 65 joining. The initial Home Guard was pretty disorganized, having been launched with no support personnel funding or even buildings to mate end A1's broadcasts that TO people to register out of police station, and that was all the information that they were given. The Home Guard was a hive of improvisation. According to history online. They did have training, but no uniforms and equipment. They were armed bonds instead of uniforms to identify themselves. And they use knives, brooms on pitchforks as weapons. Volunteer's carried punches of pepper on homemade grenades. Eventually the war office give them a few rifles. Members of the public were asked to donate guns on their acquired 20 thousand firearms. Weapons were imported from America and Canada. First World War rifles arrived by the summer on the world for supplied quite cheap stand gowns. The home guard developed into better equipped and trend force of 1.7 million men over time. Once Churchill was a driving force behind this, he developed an administer the structure. It made sure there was a military training program for the home garden. The Home Guard's relationship with the war office was never on really good terms. The first military officer to supervise the Home Guard was left-handed General Sir Henry paddle, who fought them troublesome. He perceived them as voltage first on soldiers, second, who had the air of the Prime Minister knots. According to war history online, the Home Guard was responsible for defending key target areas of the country from possible attack. This included factories, beaches on explosive stores. At night, they patrolled fields where animate paratroopers might land. And can you imagine taking on a German power trooper, the homemade pepper spray. They really didn't need to be armed. They were expected to hold off driving forces until the military arrived. So they weren't expected to engage in all light combat. One size and 206 Home Guard members were lost on JIT. Most died during air attacks are died from injuries they had sustained on my grandfather told me what it was like to be in the home guard the night that dairy or London, Derry and Northern Ireland was blessed by the Germans. And that happened to be the night that my mother was born on my grandfather set. You just did what was needed the night dairy was bombed, everyone was just wandering around on a policeman was trying to put the fire out on the street where I was appraised, came up to him and said my house has been brought up on the policeman said, What do you expect me to do? Throw a party. You get a sense that the disorganization on the fact that they weren't equipped for the terrible situation that they find themselves and quite often. But although we think of them as Dad's Army and we kind of smile affectionately at their memory. A lot of them did sacrifice themselves for their communities. 77. The Blitz : In this video, we're going to talk about something else that really impacted people's day-to-day life during the Second World War. And that was the blitz. Let's create as German for lightning war. And was the name given to German bombing attacks on the UK between September 1940 and May 1941. It was named the Blitz and the British press. And that name stuck. Webs of bombs ran dine on British times and cities and attacks carried out by the lift FIFA. The aim was to destroy British infrastructure, cause devastation and lower morale. 43,500 civilians died in the blips. The British had won the Battle of Britain in July 1940, successfully defending the islands from German air attacks. The Blitz was part of the plan which arose from the German defeat. The German grind forces have been more successful taking the low countries and France. This created a very real threat to that Britain could be invaded. Hitler developed Operation Sea Lion, a combined assault via sea and air, but it was foiled by RAF Bomber Command. The German stand decided to carry out nighttime bombing attacks. These began on Black Saturday, the 7th of September, 1940 with an attack on London. 350 German bombers dropped bombs on the city, especially the East and the docks. And particular where a target, there were 450 people killed, one thighs, and 500 injured. The city became completely darkened at night, a street lights were turned off on. People use blackout blinds and curtains and their windows. And that was very important. London stocks, factories, warehouses and railway lines continued to be targeted in an attempt to weaken its infrastructure and destroy its economy. Children from London and other cities under attack were evacuated to the countryside across the UK as we heard earlier. Fair spread as a result of the attacks. As you can imagine that it was terrifying for those in the grind. Arid sarin slept people know they were expected to go to their nearest shelter. And underground stations are the so-called Anderson shelters built at the bottom of gardens in case it wasn't possible to reach the public shelter. These were corrugated iron shelters placed in a whole quite rudimentary. But if there was a crisis, they did the job. Time was the most important factor and saving lives. From the tenth to the 11th of May 1941711 tons of high explosives fell on London, killing 1500 people. Other than London was not the only city to be targeted. London teenager from step night, Nina Maslow wrote the first time I went in there I had to come right. I felt sick. You just couldn't see anything. You could just smell the fog, the overwhelming statute, there were thousands and thousands of people lying head to toe. The place was a **** hole. And that's quoted and Lucy worse these articles for History Extra called stories from the Blitz, which I highly recommend reading for firsthand accounts of the Blitz. On the 14th of November 1940, coventry was blessed with a huge loss of life. The destruction of its infrastructure which impacted the city for generations. It's Medieval Cathedral walls destroyed and you can see a picture here of Winston Churchill and others in the ruins of Coventry Cathedral. And its ruins were men as a reminder of the horrific night that, that happened and also of the Blitz generally, the Germans actually created a new verb based on this attack. Coventry theorem, meaning to raise a set a to the grand. Birmingham was also struck for three months. It's small arms factory was destroyed, taking away a vital component and war production. Liverpool was the most targeted city outside of London with its doc spaying a key target, the residential areas surrounding the docks were completely destroyed. The first week of May 1941, red's took place every night, Two thousand people died on many more people were made homeless. Manchester was blessed to heavily at Christmas on some key landmarks were destroyed, including Smithfield market, since arms church, the free trade Hall, many Manchester farm and we're fighting blazes in Liverpool when this happened on the bombers actually use the flames from Liverpool to locate Manchester. Sheffield was blessed because of its steel production on the port of how it was attacked. Industrial and shipbuilding times such as Glasgow and Belfast were also blitz. Now Belfast was the time where I grew up. On the face of Belfast City Center was completely changed by the blitz. It lost its Victorian architecture to a large extent. Port cities such as Portsmouth plummet, Southampton, Swansea, and Bristol were also attacked. Surprisingly, the Blitz didn't severely impact the UK economy. War production continued. The British simply move production to different areas. Other that was complicated to pull off, but they achieved it. Blitz Spirit described the stoicism unresolved, which characterize the wartime generation. The Keep calm and carry on campaign exemplifies this attitude. The civilian population played a key role in protecting and rebuilding their cities. And organizations such as the Women's volunteer service and auxiliary fire brigade are examples of this. Nighttime attacks began to decrease by May 1941 when Hitler mid new plans. Let's hear one layer, these recollections of the Blitz, Eileen night and her story as part of Liverpool museums sharing the stories behind the Blitz project, which I've linked to in the course notes. My father William Hunter, was a volunteer ambulance driver at AARP member ARP stands for area precautions. On the night of the 21st of December, 1940, a heist opposite ours on gray rock, straight advertent received a direct hit. We've got the blast from the terrible explosion. My father helped our neighbor, Mr. Jones to dig his family, his wife, AMA, and three sons, Brian, Kenneth, and William, aged 4514. The first thing Mr. Jones finds was his son's Boy Skype bugle. All four were sadly debt with tears streaming down his face. He turned to my father on congratulated him on our survival. The memory of this never left my father. 78. Bletchley Park Codebreakers: A very important contribution towards the war effort happens in a place called Bletchley Park. And that's where the Enigma code, the German code for sending messages was broken and not shortened the war by about two years. That's believed. Bletchley Park upping the country house of Sir Herbert Leon and his family. It came for sale in 1938 and it became the base of the Government code on ciphers go 50 miles from London. It was close to roads, on railway lines. It was used as a center where the Enigma machine was decoded. The Enigma device was a German code maker that resembled a giant typewriter. The poets would actually crack the Enigma code in 1931. But when war broke out, the codes were changed to every 24 hours. Bletchley was staffed by mathematicians, military experts, bankers, musicians, chess players, people who showed that they were adept at the Sunday Times crossword. In other words, anyone who is brand had a really, really good grasp of patterns. Other code-breaking centers were opened nearby, including one at Ace coat night. The chief code breaker on possibly the most famous one was the mathematician Alan Turing. And he is basically thought of as the father of computer science and is a bit of a national hero night. We had a struggle getting narrows. We're going to hear later. He invented the cheering bomb, which turns a leg by letters and to legible German carried out systematic searches to find combinations only a magma, in other words, algorithms as we would now call them. And it's thought of by many as an early computer. There were billions, literally billions of possible combinations. So it was no easy job and it took time. But actually part worker Ruth born had undertaken ran Training, Women's Royal Navy training, was assigned to the codebreakers. She recorded at Bank told you won't get any promotions or special pay Rs are very anti-social. Once you've signed in, you can't leave. Staff at Bletchley Park were required to sign the Official Secrets Act. And this total 10 thousand people during the course of the war, and not one of them broke silence about flashlight. In fact, one capital who met and married at Blatchley didn't tell each other what work they didn't have been doing until 1971 when the act was revoked. It only took one person to give the game away. Born said, there were big posters up careless talk costs, lives on walls, have ears. And that's according to British heritage. She and her colleagues worked in shifts and a large room containing 12 of children's bomb machines. And you can see one pictured here to the right. If they thought they'd find an encoded message, they wrote it down and give it to a checker. If the checker felt the message should be passed on, it was given to a code breaker and then run through other machines. The codes changed at midnight on sometimes sooner. Borne related to the importance of shutting up the machines at night, you had to be very accurate. You have to make sure the brushes weren't touching each other to make a short circuit. And you had to make sure you got your drums in the right position. The hardest thing was plugging up, so you didn't get the plug bent. And also that you've got the right letters connected to the right letters. Shifts were from it I am to 04:00 PM. Then one day off that midnight to four AM, Bletchley Park had cancer, a tennis court, Scottish dancing, and a chess club, all to make up for the anti-social ours. And sometimes they were taken to the theater in London where they met some very famous people, including Vivien Leigh, who had recently made Gone With the Wind. Born on her coworkers never knew what the messages contained. One code breaker learned that Jews were being sent to concentration camps and other received news of the Normandy landings, a byte which Churchill said, no single operation out of the World War was so dependent on Bletchley as the Normandy landings and date with either work which was done there, there is no way the landings could have gone ahead, let alone succeeded. Other less important messages were intercepted as well. For example, a message to the German quarter master, the army issue undergarments split when the wearer are sat down. Motorcycle carriers took messages to Bletchley and they went to the war room via radio. As many as 35 to 40 carriers arrived per hour. Sometimes they were intercepting a lot of messages. It's been estimated that the work at Bletchley Park shortened the war by two years and a match and high many lives across the world that would've saved. When the war was over, Churchill ordered that the bombs be destroyed so they didn't fall into enemy hands. Bletchley Park recently opened to the public. The most famous member of staff at Bletchley Park was possibly this gentleman, Alan Turing. In 1952, Turing who had gone on to further advance the science of computers and algorithms, was prosecuted for homosexual acts. He accepted chemical castration rather than go to prison. He died on the seventh of June, 1954, shortly before his 42nd birthday, due to cyanide poisoning. And inquest, Ruth has death or suicide, but it could also have been accidental. In 2009, Prime Minister Gordon Bryan issued an apology for the appalling way turing was treated because really touring should have been thought of as a national hero. He was officially pardoned by Elizabeth the Second and 2013. The term Alan Turing law as applied to legislation passed by the UK Parliament pardoning man historically convicted under laws which bound homosexual acts. Sharing Nia pairs on the Bank of England 50 note. And I think more people have heard of heparin maybe had done in the past, has worked, had been secret under the official sacred site. But when the extent of what he had done to end the war and also his huge contribution to computer science became known. He really should have been recognized. 79. The British and Japan : In this video, we're going to talk about the British and Japan during the Second World War. Just so as you can assess my suitability as a source, I have to declare my hat and say I have a personal association to the subject matter through this gentlemen migrate Uncle Jim Prescott, who was a very big part of my upbringing. You can see him here and his old age, he actually lived to be 94. As a younger man and his uniform, he was conscripted into the army and sent to the Far East where he was captured. He was one of the soldiers meant to build the bridge over the river. Quite the things he suffered there where horrific and he wasn't actually able to tell his family about them. I realized when I went to see the movie The Railway Man and 2013 after Uncle Jim had died, that that was partly because it was just so awful. The only other people who'd been through it could understand it. Hence, every year Uncle Jim met up with his old comrades and he kept in touch with them throughout his life right up until his death. But I also realized that there have been things that he didn't want us to know because the information would be too much for us. And I have to be honest with you, I have fine preparing this video in places very distressing. And because of that, I've put a lot of information into the notes for you to read. Basically, I lived in fear of finding a photograph of him as I went through the archives because I know that when he was rescued, he weighed less than seven stone and he was five foot ten and I just couldn't bear finding a photograph like thought of him. I would like to dedicate this video to his memory. Just tell you that having researched the subject has made me even more and all of him than I already was because he was a truly remarkable person who not only went all to have a normal life after what he suffered, he went on to actually have quite a happy life. You can see him there with his ground daughter Louise. I'm nothing brought him more joy than to be in the company of his grandchildren are in data's great-grandchildren. The British and Japan and the Second World War. Japanese forces invaded Malaya on the 8th of December, 1941 under general Yamashita, defeating British Indian on Australian troops. The Japanese quashed resistance in Kuala Lumpur and elsewhere. By February 1942, Japanese forces occupied Malaya. They then launched the attack on the strategically important island of Singapore. And we've heard Churchill's reaction to that before. British forces in Singapore surrender to the Japanese on the 15th of February, 1942. And Winston Churchill called the surrender the worst disaster and human history. Japan also invaded Burma and it's Indian, Anglo-Indian and British communities flat to India. Wealthier people flat by land or say, but many hundreds of thousands were forced to flee on foot across the mountains between Burma and India. Thousands died from disease, exhaustion, malnutrition or drying and the many rivers along the way. By Jane 1942, the Japanese drove the British, Indian and Chinese forces I'd of Burma. In 1943, the famously eccentric Brigadier 4D went git lab the so-called agendas, Chinese, Indian and breadths, hence Chen debts as well as Nepalese trips and a long distance red behind enemy lines. And his force total to about 3 thousand men, like what was so accepted by them, I hear you say, well, according to Wikipedia, when get one few friends among the officer corps with his direct manner of dealing with fellow officers on superiors, along with eccentric personal habits. He would eat raw onions because he thought they were healthy. Scrub himself with a rubber brush instead of bathing and greet visitors to his 10th west, completely naked. There you go. When get advocated jungle guerrilla warfare, there was a very high sickness rate amongst his man. On the 12th of February 1943 when getting his men set out across the chin dt when river, they put one of the men railways and Burma item action then cross the arrow body river conditions. There are different greatly from what intelligence had led them to believe it would be like it was dry and then hospitable with roads that the Japanese could use to their advantage. The Japanese intercept chin that supplies and the chin That's began to suffer from exhaustion and food and water shortages. When it was ordered to withdraw back to India by Eastern Army HQ on the 22nd of March. But he and his commanders didn't really know how to do this without becoming vulnerable to the Japanese. As there were no supporting british forces in the area, they decided to retrace your steps across the river and make surprise attacks on the anime as they return to the chin V1. By mid-March, three Japanese infantry units were chasing the tendons, so they really were in trouble. They were eventually trapped. And the band of the Schwann cell river, they couldn't cross the river and talk to reach British lines, so they split into small groups. The Japanese removed boats from the rivers, Aeroflot h and when a mode as well as patrolling the riverbanks and preventing supplies from being delivered by air. The force returned to India by spring 1943 by various rates and in groups numbering from one individual to whole columns. The force lost 1 third of its membership, its compliments, as it's called in military terms. The building of the Burma Thailand railway. After the surrender of Singapore, thousands of servicemen became Japanese prisoners of war. They were detained in camps on subjected to a brutal regime, including torture, neglect on forced labor. From 1942, they were forced to build the Burma, Thailand railway, which became known as The Death Railway. There was a high mortality rate amongst the prisoners of war on civilian workers. The completion of the railway was marked with a golden nail according to Japanese custom inscribed Shoah it meaning 1943, the 18th year of the reign of Emperor Showa, also known as Hirohito. The Japanese needed the railway after their defeat at the Battle of Coral Sea and May 1942 and midway and June 1942, which made SSI rates between Japan's islands and Burma and secure overland route offered a direct way of transporting troops and supplies. 60 thousand allied prisoners of war on 200 thousand Asian conscripts worked on the railway. 30 thousand prisoners of war were British, 13 thighs and where Australia, it teen thousand word dutch on there were 700 Americans. Between June 1942 and October 1943. They built 258 miles of track from bond Pong and Thailand to thumb be out his eye out. In Burma. They suffered from disease and malnutrition and horrific punishments by their captors. Construction was very difficult to say the least, as the terrane include a jungle and fasted with mosquitoes and even grind whilst monsoons often struck represent canyons had to be bridged on mountain areas, had to be cut away. So can you imagine really have a physical labor in the hate? Much of this work was carried out with inadequate honchos and the work fell behind. The pace of work was increased. Prisoners worked around the clock with shifts lasting up to it teen Rs. 700 allied prisoners died or were killed at the infamous **** fire pass when the Japanese inflicted harsh punishments due to the slow progress of the work of cutting through the margin. At Khan you, the prisoners were fed a small amount of rice on spoiled meat or fish. The rations often contained rat droppings and markets. They had little drinking water. They suffered from malnutrition, dehydration and disease. And disease was compiled by unsanitary conditions in the camps. The tropical environment, dysentery was responsible for a third of all the deaths on the railway. To my uncle told me a story that there was someone in his camp who was dying of dysentery. And they asked the Japanese guards if they could give this gentleman some of the SWOT Suma oranges that we're growing around the compound on the guard said no. And then where my uncle's friend died, they felt in his grave With oranges and that's the only story about his time there that he ever told me. And he didn't tell me that until I was well into my twenties when he thought I was old enough to hear it. Cholera, malaria and tropical ulcers were also common. Uncle Jim actually had malaria, recurrent bouts of malaria for the rest of his life. The prisoners did not have access to adequate medicine and equipment to treat the ill. Australian Army Sergeant artists known as where a lot famously saved many lives. He had been captured in May 1942 when the Japanese took control of Java and assigned as a medical officer on the railway. And January 1943, he risked his life by standing up to the Japanese guards to treat the wounded and sick. The extreme cruelty of the Japanese is widely recognized, but it varied from place to place along the railway rate. And some prisoners actually remembered acts of kindness from Japanese guards, the Imperial Japanese Army trans soldiers to believe that surrender was dishonorable. And so because the Allies had surrendered, they were viewed as not where they respect. The Imperial Japanese Army also punished its own trips with physical punishment. Any Japanese soldier could punish POW. So not just an officer. Physical punishment was administered for even very minor offenses, such as failing to select a Japanese guard. The most common form of punishment was fist slopping, which was often done with implements such as a bamboo stick or shovel. Severe beatings were also common, where a Dunlop wrote of a Beta of prisoners who had missed work, some due to having been in hospital. They received blows with a fist hammering over the face and head with wooden clogs repeatedly thrown to the grind, kicking in the stomach and scrotum and ribs, etcetera. When the man fell to the ground, they were somehow I got to their fate by such painful stimuli as the above. And the dose was repeated. And he wrote that in his war diaries. Other severe punishments included the mid hold, a stone above your head from many r's on being forced into small cells without food or water. One young Aboriginal soldier was forced to do on a piece of Bombay for days. This cause gangrene and he eventually lost his legs. Some soldiers through jagged stones at prisoners as they worked, those hit by the stones were deemed to be working to slowly. The Japanese were often compressions on the prisoners lived in fear of their modes. What might be met with a bit of a laugh ones I could be ritually punished. The next prisoners fears the camp of tie, the Japanese military police who use torture to extract information, especially those who tried to skip or who had acquired an illegal radio. The Japanese had respect for the dead as part of their culture analyzed funeral services on funeral ceremonies. They even created a memorial for those who had died building the railway and early 1944, Australian soldier who Clark recombinant instance of an English-speaking commander, Lieutenant Sumi, preventing his man from baiting prisoners, working on, on abutment. Sunni even organized a male of fish and a concert for the Australians when this work was completed. After the war, Australian courts try to thaws and Japanese and Korean soldiers for their treatment of allied prisoners. 62 were accused of war crimes during the building of the Burma Thailand railway. And I would like to thank Anzac portal, the Australian government website for information on the treatment of allied POWs. The fate of male prisoners of war was very, very harsh. I think perhaps we talked a little bit less about what happened to the women. Except for the BBC has an amazing shows several years ago called tanker, which covered the subject and their worlds. The movie Paradise rode a bike, female prisoners of war and Sumatra. Let's hear a little bit about the rail women prisoners of war in World War II. In the forest. Women prisoners of war were also traded with brutality. Several 100 women, mostly British, Dutch in Australia and along with children where interns and Malaya, they also faced starvation and disease. They created a vocal orchestra newsletter and dispense, as well as being a medieval list. I also happen to have a master of music on my particular area of interest. And my dissertation, which I started a PhD on was music, I'm trauma, so I'm very, very interested in this vocal orchestra. So we're going to be hearing a little bit about that. When Singapore felt female POWs were unturned and pollen buying on the 15th of February, 1942. They were later moved to Montauk on Banca island on the 20th of October, 1944210 women died of Banca favor a tropical disease. Between October and December 1944, tens of thousands of British and Dutch colonists lived in the East Indies and Singapore was a favorite spot for them before the war, with wide street shops, manicured lawns, unpleasant home. So they'd actually had a very nice existence there. Before the war broke out. The Europeans had not thought the Japanese would be able to take Singapore, which was defended by the British military and ostensibly impenetrable jungles. The Japanese came closer, british forces flat and panic. Because the colonists haven't believed that Singapore could fall. They hadn't evacuated the women and children and many were left when the Japanese arrived, refugees flooded to the ports that onto any available vessels, many of which were sunk by the Japanese. Many of the women who would become POWs at Sumatra have been aboard these vessels. The Viner Brooke was a bustle design for 12 passengers, which contained 300, encoding 65 Australian nurses from the CNS, the Australian Army nursing service. It took machine gunfire and it was hit by three bombs. The passengers were ordered to abandon ship. The vessels psych and 15 minutes on the Japanese fired on the hundreds of refugees in the water. By morning, a 100 survivors reach Raj beach on Banca Island, having been drawn there violet fire, which served as a bacon, letting them see where land walls. They decided to harm themselves into the Japanese thinking that there would be captured eventually anyway. A senior nurse, midterm Drummond synthase civilian women and children to a nearby village whilst the army Narcissus day to attend, the men and one elderly women chose to stay with her husband. The Japanese came and removed the able-bodied man. They laughed the narcissism one civilian women on the beach. They then returned an ordered the women to line up on walk into the same. When they were waist high in the water, the Japanese opened fire. Only one nurse, Vivian Bullwinkle survived on. She remembered. They just swept up and down the line and the girls felt after the other. I was towards the end of the line on a bullet got me in the left line and went straight through and came out toward the front. The force of it, not me over into the water and there I lay, I did not lose consciousness. The waves brought me back to the edge of the water. I lay there ten minutes and everything seemed quiet. I sat up and looked around and there was no sign of antibody. Then I got up and went up in the jungle and lay dying and either slapped her, was unconscious for a couple of days, maybe completely horrific. Bullwinkle Kim to uninstall the injured private Kingsley, whom she nursed for 12 days until they began walking to Montauk. She met 31 nurses who had loud it elsewhere on the island from the 65 nurses on the vine or Brook, 12 were presumed drawn to 21, had been shot on 32 have been taken prisoner. Over 80 people have been killed on the beach. A quarter of them women. Bullwinkle escape was kept secret by the nurses who felt, but the knowledge that she had witnessed a massacre would put her in danger. Women POWs were well aware during their internment that their captors were willing to kill them. The Japanese held those who surrounded and contempt, especially women. Women and children couldn't be put to work like the man on were considered useless knives. That was the prevailing attitude towards the women and children and it was the basis for the way in which they were treated. The women were rounded up and sent to Erin land camp near pal and bang on the island of Sumatra. They came from 27 nationalities and included nurses, nuns, doctors, teachers on Wives of administrators and planters. Many had been members of the European elite. They slept on blankets on concrete floors. There was only one well and two tops for water. Their food was mostly contaminated rice. And when I say contaminated, it had the rock droppings on bits of straw. And markets that the man's food would have happened that also sometimes came with shards of glass. Sanitation was PER, with outside public toilets. And when I say public toilets, that doesn't just mean that they were shared. It means that they were on view. The Japanese have not been equipped for high numbers of women on children on hoped the problem would take care of itself. In other words, that they would just start dying off. In 3.5 years, the women were moved between four camps. Women learned to repeatedly by two, the Japanese are suffer punishment. Their food was dumped in front of them on the ground. They were only ally to lift it when permission was given. The Japanese have not signed the Geneva Convention which mom, dad, that humane treatment of POWs, requests for medical care were routinely ignored. Red Cross shipments were confiscated. And there were about 500 women on a 100 children and the PAL on Bandcamp. The Scottish musician nor a Chambers is famous for having started a vocal orchestra in the camp. In other words, the women sighing parts that would normally have been played by orchestral instruments. She did this to inspire a will to survive and her fellow prisoners. She was a graduate of the Royal College of Music. In a very gifted musician. She shared her idea with a mission Rey Margaret dry Barak, who was respected by prisoners and guards and the camp. They transcribed at a ranged over 30 pieces of classical music for four-part harmony. The guards were said to have followed under the spell of the beauty of the music made by the women's voices. Sadly, new recordings survive, although I will play you a re-creation of some of their work later, chambers refused to add a Japanese song to the repertoire when she was asked to by the guards, I was made to stand for ours in the sun without water. The vocal orchestras music was performed after the war and inspired the film paradise road. Driving. Actually wrote a piece of music specifically about their situation called the captives him, which was first song on the fifth of July, 1942. It used familiar musical patterns to address the prisoners sense of dislocation from the outside world and their former lives. It sounded familiar even though it was new and so it was comforting. Acknowledged the anguish they were experienced. When repatriation cam, or young Eurasian women took it to Singapore to be sung by the prisoners there. So it actually became inspirational elsewhere. Dr. Berg sadly died in the camp. Biographers live venue Warner on John Sandy lands. Tell us the loss of MS. Dr. Berg was sorely felt. She was the vigorous and inventive spirit to meet a large on disparate body of women coalesce to find strength against a common parallel. The church services she initiated amid the diets and then patients and even embarrassment of those around her at the start of the imprisonment. Injured is a vital rallying point to the very end. But in fact, she did more fostering the tribal strength that became the foundation of survival when the desperate flight at Bella live forced h person to call upon their last individual resources. So she was a very inspirational figure to the women around her. This is the hymn that Margaret Dr. Berg wrote. I'd like to draw your attention to some words from it. At the bottom of the left-hand column, you can say that true greatness comes from the, the women were being made to eat off the grind and ask permission to pick up their food, for example, on she's saying that isn't true greatness. You are not the ultimate power over us, which is actually a little bit subversive part that I personally find quite moving is the last brush where it says, May the day of freedom dawn on that must have been what they hoped for every day. But then it says, grant that nations loving, they order the world may brothers Bay. Instead of seeking revenge, they're sticking brotherhood between nations. They're taking pace, which I think is really quite beautiful. You will have of course, your own reaction to this Him, let's hear it. My performed by the Sydney women's vocal orchestra. In parallel. Prisoners suspected of treachery were taken to pal and buying jail run by the Japanese military police, the camper Thai, women who survived confinement and torture there were returned to the camp with ide knowing why they've been sent to jail in most cases, the women in the camp formed a strong community. Sister Katharina, a Dutch none on the reverend mother Laurentia, organized the prisoners into grapes, which each had a captain. These captains address the needs of the grapes, distributed the mega resources on carried out orders from the Japanese mother Laura anti-A organized the nuns to minister to the prisoners physically and spiritually. Dr. Jane McDowell, a Scottish physician and remember female doctors at that period in history where few British nurse Margo Turner setup a crude dispense race staffed by mostly Australian nurses. Zai the short, born in Baghdad. I'm married to a British soldier that associated with the Japanese guards for food, medicine on fabric. A little bit about their daily lives. The prisoners food contained rock dropping shards of glass on straw, and how to be ripped through before it could be. You left it at all if the grind and you certainly couldn't just eat it, there was work to be done. As mating vegetables were dumped on the grind, they had to be cleaned. The women added ferns, bamboo, and other Django plants for which they had to forage. Firewood has to be gathered and chopped. The trains had to be cleaned, and that must have been a horrible job. The routine these tasks created helped the prisoners. Are there cultural differences sometimes cause tensions, as you can imagine. What about the children, while entertainment for the children was organized and national groups, there were concerts, plays, and landing libraries of the few books that were on offer. Ms. Dry Barak emerged as the leader of the English contingent. Werner on sandy lands tell us the very first morning of the barracks, equipped with her Bible and a prayer book borrowed from the young fellas little oh, she announced that each morning and night she would say prayers and read from the Bible and invited anyone who wish to do so to join her. This was the first indication of some form of leadership emerging amongst the women. And actually those meetings coalesced people were important in forming a community within the camp. Dr. Berg also began a newsletter to lifts spirits, as well as a Glee Club which grew into the vocal orchestra. The children became disruptive and they formed gangs. So Dr. Berg started a SKU for them. Holidays, birthdays and anniversaries were celebrated. And The Camp, Christmas 1942 saw the camp decorated and an improvised Christmas dinner with her mid games and toys for every child. Man and nearby POW camps were moved to hear the women on children's saying, Oh come all the faithful. Camp survivor Helen colon later wrote, in charge of the kitchen where two women who worked every day and most of the day unless they were Oh, for the duration of our captivity. These were the British Nora chambers on the Dutch starch I tops. At four or five every morning they rose to start the fire. So wavelength, the flip side of adverse I capitalize from the previous evening. I'm much was a rarity in the camp. And other half chambers jobs was to carry water for the baths of the Japanese whilst the women's own walter a cup a day for everything during the dry season came from a dirty well on how to be boiled. Chambers on her best friend, The New Zealand or Audrey Owen empty the SAS pill every day for which they earned during respect NOI and their captors mentality, tasks like that, that were very menial and unpleasant, would've made you the lowest rung of the ladder. Whereas actually amongst their fellow prisoners, the fact that they were willing to do this garnered them respect. Chambers wrote of Owen artery taught me a grit do she knew a lot about the stars on unclear nights we would sit outside and she would point out the constellations to me, a wonderful escape from everything around us. She was a very intelligent, gentle person and sometimes to take our minds off our sanitary forays, she would recite poetry to me as we worked. Even in that gasoline mess, we find flowers, beautiful passion flowers, which we would pick and take back and give one bloom to anyone who had a birthday. Chambers ability to find hope, as you can see from this quote, helped to sustain and many other women. After 18 months, the women were moved to facility. The size of a football failed for all of them and entertainments slowed to a stop. There were starvation rations on no medication was given to the SEC. Dry bark became ill with Dang fever and acquire a language. It was at this point that Chambers, whom as we heard, was a graduate of the Royal College of Music, came up with the idea of performing orchestral pieces using voices as instruments. Bullwinkle recalled there were 30 women in the choir. They were so weak from malnutrition that they had to sit in wooden stoves as they sang. And it was difficult for them at times to sustained notes for their field strength. It was a spiritual moment. It transported us right away from our surroundings. Until then we were close to despair. Remember, it was our second Christmas and captivity, and we had no idea how long we would be there until liberation. But after that performance, I don't think we ever disparate again, it stood out as the most joyful experience in 3.5 years of captivity. An amazing testimony to the power of music and to the power of the human spirit. Really, half of the vocal orchestra died silencing they're beautiful music. By the end of January 1945, there were two or three funerals a day as Banca favorite had spread through the camp for months. The women dug graves for their companions. On the 9th of April 1945, the women were packed into the hold of a ship and then onto a trend with light food or water. Their destination was the old rubber plantation of lobe AAC lingo. Several women died on the way on the conditions that the new comp, or even worse than what they had faced before. The women had to grow their own food and forage of the jungle, they were not allowed to eat the tropical fruits growing and the plantation which were left to rot. By this time, Margaret dry bark was seriously ill. Nor a Chambers recalled she was semiconscious and it was obvious that she was dying. She should have recovered, but she was so weak from starvation that she just couldn't. She died on the 21st of April, 1945, and for her companions are lost, symbolized all but they had been through. The 8th of May 1945, victory in Europe was declared, but the women didn't know as they have no information from the outside world. In early August, the Americans dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan surrendered. But again, the prisoners didn't know there was still any thighs and dwell arm Japanese soldiers and Malaya. And there was a risk that they might slaughter their prisoners before the war ended, the British were unaware of the existence of the women's camp. They parachuted and men to negotiate with the Japanese until a kit POWs. On the 26th of August, 1945, major Gideon Jacobs reached the women's camp. He was horrified by what he saw and arranged for an immediate AirDrop of food and medical supplies. Huge for engine Liberator bomber was saying pouring down provisions. British soldiers began cooking, cleaning, and caring for the sick. The Japanese surrounded on the second of September 1945, which became known as VJ victory and Japan Day. 80. D-Day e: In this video, we're going to talk about the day that turned the tide. D-day, also known as the Normandy landings and operation nap chain. It took place on Tuesday the sixth of June, 1944. These were the landing operations associated with the airborne strategy of Operation Overlord, which we've heard mentioned before. It was the largest seaborne invasion in the whole of history. It began the liberation of fronts, followed by Western Europe and pave the way for the allied victory on the Western Front. Planning for the invasion began back in 1943. Operation Bodyguard have been carried out to mislead the Germans or by the debt and location of the plant landings. And that was a very big component in the success of D-Day. On the day that had been planned, there was bad weather on the operation was delayed for 24 hours, but it couldn't be left any later as that would've meant a delay of two weeks, by which time the Germans would definitely have got wind of the plan. The phase of the Tides was also important on it meant that only a few days of the month we're feasible for the landings. Hitler put Rommel and charge of developing fortifications along the Atlantic wall and preparation for an Allied invasion. Romo was also in command of the German forces. On D-Day, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed manager General Dwight Eisenhower as Commander of the Allied forces. The landings were preceded by extensive aerial bombardments. 24 thousand British, American, and Canadian airborne troops landed shortly after midnight. Infantry and armor divisions landed on the French coast at 06:30 AM or 0630. If we want to assign it a bit more military abided. The 50 mile stretch of coast targeted by the Allies was divided into five sectors. Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno, and sort of Utah and Omaha, strong winds blew the vessels off course to the when the man landed, they came under heavy gunfire. The beaches were mined and full of obstacles such as wooden sticks, metal tripods on barbed wire. Beach clearing teams undertook the dangerous work of trying to remove these casualties were worst at Omaha because it had high cliffs, whereas the Germans could shoot from highest allies fighting took place in Gold, Juno and sort. Two major gun placements where disabled using tanks up gold. The Allies did not achieve their goals on the first day of the invasion, Karen, silo and buy you were retained by the Germans and chaos, a major objective was not captured until the 21st of July. Only two of the beaches, golden juno, were connected on the first day, and all five were not linked until the 12th of June on at had been an objective to link them all on the very first day of landing. German casualties and D-Day are thought to have been between four thousand and nine thousand. What had led up to D-Day. After the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, Stalin began calling on the allies for a second front in Europe to be created. I joined a nightstand was made by the USA and the USSR in May 1940. To that, full understanding was reached with regard to the urgent tasks of creating a second front in Europe. In 1942, Churchill convinced Roosevelt to delay the plant and version though, as he felt the Allies didn't have the resources to defeat the Germans using this strategy. Instead of immediately turning their attention to France, the Allies staged offensives and the Mediterranean Theater where British troops had already been stationed. The campaign in North Africa was won by the middle of 1943. The Allies invaded Sicily and July 1943 and then the Italian mainland. And September Soviet forces won a major victory at the Battle of Stalingrad. At the trident Conference in Washington, May 1943, the UK and USA made the decision to launch an offensive in Europe within a year. Most available landing vessels were unused though, and the Mediterranean and the Pacific at the time, Roosevelt and Churchill promise style and at the terrane conference in November 1943, that they would open the promise second front in Europe and May 1944, the allies considered for locations for the landings, Brittany, the cotton towel Peninsula, Normandy, and the paddock LA. Retina and cotton are potential eyes of the Germans could easily have cut off the invaders so strategically that wasn't so good. The path of Calais was the closest landing point to Britain. So the Germans assumed they would land there and fortified heavily. So it was just too obvious. Normal day provided a good location to take the port of Cherbourg and advance towards Paris. However, it lacked port facilities. This was overcome by the use of temporary Mulberry harbors. Modify tanks known as Hubbert's funny's were used to clear minds on demolished bunkers. At the Quebec Conference in 1943, the allied leaders accepted this plan and Dwight D. Eisenhower was named commander of supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force. The British General Bernard Montgomery, was named commander of the 21st army group. All land forces involved in the invasion. On the 31st of December, 1943, Eisenhower and Montgomery saw the plants which to launch ambitious loud x by three divisions with two more and support. The two generals insisted that they initial invasions be expanded to five divisions with Air Force support by another three divisions. This would allow operations on wider front and facilitate the capture of Schoenberg. The intended Dad had been the first of May, but there were not enough landing craft available, and so it was postponed until June 139. Allied divisions were eventually committed to the battle of Normandy. 22 American divisions, 12 British, three Canadian, one polish on one French. And this totaled over a million trips. Not a definition of a division is, and modern military organizations, the smallest formation that comprises a balanced team of all the arms and services needed for the independent conduct of operations. Usually numbers between twelve thousand and twenty thousand men and as commanded by a Major General on that definition comes from Britannica. The operations leading up to and on D-Day Operation Overlord was the code name for the plant invasion of Europe. The first phase, the sea landings and establishment of a foothold on land was code named Operation Neptune. Operation point-blank was the name of the air bombing campaign which targeted German aircraft production feels supplies and airfields preceding they envision Operation Bodyguard was a series of elaborate deceptions aimed at misleading the Germans regarding the timing and location of the invasion. The Orne River and bridges at Canton on the western flank, or secured by airborne operations which proceeded D-Day. The Americans were to land at Utah and Omaha and capture character and some low on the first day, then cut off the content on Peninsula and captured the port of Schoenberg. The British were to land a golden sword and along with the Canadians at genome protect the US flank and established airfields at chaos on the first day, all the invading forces would eventually be linked and all territory north of the avalanche fell as would be held by the allies within the first three weeks. Or that was the plan. Montgomery plant for a 90 day battle lasting until all allied forces reached the San. As we mentioned before, misleading the Germans was a very big part of planning the invasion. Several deception operations were carried out under Operation Bodyguard. Operation for T2 chip used fake radio messages to convince the Germans to expect an invasion of Norway, and that was called fortitude North. That particular deception, fortitude size created the fictitious first United States Army Group under American General George S Patton, who was supposedly and canter Sussex planning from men attack on CAL. Genuine radio messages from the 21st army grape were re-routed cans and broadcast to give the impression that preparations for a callee loud and we're underway with Allied troops stationed in Kent. The Allies destroyed German radar stations on the French coast and preparation for the landings. The night before the invasion, special air service operators deploy dummy paratroopers, overlay Harvard, and he's leading the Germans to believe there had been an airborne landing there. A group of small vessels to him, barrage balloons added to the illusion. Number 218 squadron RAF carried out a similar plan, Operation Glimmer at billowing server, where the weather was a very important factor on D-Day, the invasion planners wanted to say a very specific set of conditions, including the phase of the moon and tides on the time of day. And these were only achievable on a few days in each month. A full moon would like the way for the Air Force and provide the highest tides for the C invaders. The landings needed to be scheduled for just before dawn between low and high tide with the tides coming in. This would give the best visibility of obstacles on the beach and minimize the time spent by the force and the open. The professional dead select by Eisenhower was the fifth of Jane. But on the 4th of June the weather was not propitious with high winds and low clouds, which would have made it impossible to launch the landing craft and obstructive pilot's ability to see their targets. Grape Captain Jim stag, they RAF, met Eisenhardt on the evening of the fourth of Jane. He had his meteorological team predicted, but whether it would be improved enough for the invasion to take place on the sixth of June. Not launching on the sixth would mean waiting for another two weeks. Man and vessels, we're already in position and the English Channel waiting to be launched. And such a lengthy postponement would allow the Germans to ascertain the true invasion plans. Eisenhower held discussions with the other commanders. That was a great debt, would be the sixth of June. Had it been postponed longer, the forces would have encountered the major storm which hit from the 19th to the 22nd of June. The Allies control the Atlantic. So they had more meteorological information than the Germans did. The lift FIFA meteorological Sandra in Paris was predicting two weeks of storms. Many Wehrmacht commanders left our posts and attended war games and rents. Many German soldiers were given leave at this time, Field Marshal Rommel went to Germany for his wife's birthday. I had to ask Hitler for more panzer or tank divisions. The German forces on D-Day, there were 50 German divisions in France on the low countries, and other IT team were stationed in Denmark and Norway. 15 divisions were being formed in Germany at the time. The Germans has sustained heavy losses, especially on the Eastern Front. And so there were few able-bodied young men to call upon. German soldiers were on average six years older than their Allied counterparts. Many best in Norman date where OSCE leaky one1 Eastern legions, conscripts and volunteers from Russia, other areas of the USSR and Mongolia. They had little motorized transport and we're armed with substandard captured equipment. In early 1944, the German western front was depleted by transfers to the Eastern Front. During the Soviet Nippur carpet of the inoffensive, the liberation of the right bank, Ukraine from the 24th of December, 1943 until the 17th of April 1944, the German High Command had no option but to transfer the entire two SS Panzer Corps, the tank corps, from France, leading to a loss in France of 45,827 trips and 363 tanks, assault guns on anti-tank guns. The leaves that are to assess out of Hitler, the tank forces had only arrived in France between March and May 1944 for a re-fetch due to damage sustained during the neighbor Carpathian campaigns. So they weren't in working order. Seven out of 11 Panzer division stationed in France were not fully operational. And June 1944, hitler had ordered fortifications along the Atlantic coast from spin to Norway to guard against an anticipated Allied invasion. He had intended 15 thousand and placements to be bound by 300 thousand trips. But shortages of labor on concrete method, most of these strongholds were never built. The part of Kelly was the most heavily defended point as the Germans believed this would be the site of the envision in Normandy, the strongest defenses where at Cherbourg on some yellow, Rama was assigned to oversee the construction of defenses from the Netherlands to share work. He was also given command of the newly reformed army group B. Rommel believed that the Normandy coast was potential landing site and gave orders for the construction of defenses along the shore. He ordered wooden sticks, tripods, minds, and anti-tank obstacles to be placed on the beaches, which you can say photographed below. Barbed wire baby traps on the removal of ground cover were used to make an approach by the infiltrate more difficult. The Allied air offensive over Germany had established allied supremacy and the air over Western Europe. So Romo couldn't rely on air support. The lift FAFSA was done to 1815 aircraft rebel ordered the planting a booby traps, sticks known as rubbish Pregel, rumbles, asparagus to be planted and fields and meadows to discourage the landing of allied aircraft. Rommel strategy was overall to stop the invasion up the shore. He asked for mobile reserves, especially tanks, be stationed as close to the shore as possible. Other senior German commanders objected, feeling that they envision could not be stopped on the beaches. Geher wanted to maintain Panzer divisions around Paris unreal. Hitler made the final decision though, which was to leave three Panzer divisions under Garrett's command and to give rubble command of three more as reserves. Hitler took personal control of four divisions who were not to act without his direct orders. The allied forces on D-Day, the second army was made up of 83,115 ban, of whom 61,715 were British. The British air and naval units were also made up of personnel from other allied nations. Some RAF squadrons were made up of a large number of Australians, and RIF stands for Royal Air Force. The RIF supplied two-thirds of the aircraft used in the invasion. The London-based a Thomas show, their floors phone says the lamp area. French forces of the anterior and the British Special Operations Executive work together to form a plot of sabotage to be carried out by the French resistance. Once when I was very young, I met an elderly French gentleman who was very understanding of my desire to talk in French them. And I noticed that he was wearing the metal of the French resistance. This was in London and there was actually celebration of D-Day happening at the time. And I said to this gentleman here, a hero and he replied, No, I was young and foolish. And all I can say is thank goodness for young and foolish people because the French resistance where a very important set of people on D-Day. The French resistance was a group of organizations and individuals sometimes in sales is smallest for people who worked to undermine the Germans and Vichy France, they did things like sabotaging communications on railways, like we can see here. Often at great personal risk. There were four plans made by the allies for the French resistance is role and the envisions plan bear or plant green was a 15 day operation to sabotage the real system. Plant blur or a plant blue dealt with destroying electrical facilities. Plant or two, or plant tortoise was a delaying operation. And at the enemy forces that were potentially reinforce access forces at Normandy. Plant VLA upon violet dealt with cutting under grind telephone and teleprinter cables. That information comes from Wikipedia. The resistance was contacted via massage personnel transmitted by the baby. Safe French service from London on BBC stands for British Broadcasting Corporation. The message is sounded like passages of poetry or literature. They were encode German intelligence correctly interpreted and increase and radioactivity on the 5th of June as meaning an invasion was imminent. Most German units ignored this because of the previous barrage of misinformation. Thanks to the French resistance, sabotage of trends and railway lines, normal day was cut off from the seventh of June. Historian Corelli Barnard described naval preparations for D-Day as I'll never surpassed masterpiece of planning. Bertram Ramsey was in command of the British naval forces. The invasion fleet was taken from it, different navies. It comprised 6,939 vessels. There were 1213 warships, 4,126 London craft vessels of various descriptions, 736 on ciliary craft, and 864 merchant vessels. The fleet was divided into the Western naval task force under odd well and G Kirk and the eastern naval task force under Sir Philip, via the Western naval task for supported the Americans on the eastern naval task force operated at the British and Canadian sectors. There were five battleships, 20 cruisers, 65 destroyers on two monitors, German ships. And the area on D-Day included three torpedo boats, 29 fast Attack Craft, 36 our boats on 36 mine sweepers on patrol boats. The Germans also had several U-boats at 0510 for German torpedo boats, launched 15 torpedoes at the Eastern taskforce, sinking the Norwegian destroy us fatter neared Sword Beach. The torpedoes missed the British battleships. Hmm, worst bite on rallies. The German vessels then flat onto the smokescreen created by the RAF to hide the flipped from the long-range battery at Le Havre. The Allies lost the American destroyer, USS car a two minds off Utah and the American submarine chess or US SPC, one hundred two hundred sixty one British, Canadian, and American bombers numbering more than 2200 attack targets along the coast and inland at midnight. Low applied cover mid targets at Omaha, difficult to see on the bombardment was relatively ineffective there as the bombers worried about hitting Allied troops, mine sweepers cleared the channel to prepare the way for the invasion fleet shortly after midnight and continued to Don without encountering the anime. Naval bombardment of the beaches commenced at 05:45 AM while it was still dark. Gunners then and for pre-assigned targets, once the sun began to rise at 550 AM, trips were scheduled to land and the American sectors of Utah and Omaha, first at 0630 with the British landing and our later, the American sectors only underwent 40 minutes of bombardment before trips began to land, airborne operations were used to secure bridges, road crossings, and other GOD where the Germans might be able to launch counter offensives before the full force had landed. The BBC war correspondent, Robert bar described the paratroopers preparing to board the aircraft. Their faces were darkened with cocoa sheath knives were strapped to their ankles, Tommy guns strapped to their waists, boundary layers and hand grenades, coils of rope, pick handled spirits, rubber dinghy is hung around them. And a few personal odd months like the lad who was taking a newspaper to read on the plan. There was an AAC familiar touch about the way they were getting ready as though they had done it often before. Well, yes, they had kept it up and climbed aboard often just like this. 203040 times, some of them. But it had never been quite like this before. This was the first combat jump for every one of them. The American forces on D-Day, American Pathfinder is arrived at 15 minutes past midnight. Thick client may add navigation difficult on only one of the five power trooper drop zones were accurately marked using radar. An oldest labs which were signaling devices, more than 13 thighs and demand where landed, arriving from the west over the content Tom potential or to avoid flying over the Allied invasion fleet. The plans accident over Utah Beach. At half past one in the morning, paratroopers from the 101st Airborne Division were dropped under orders to control the causeways behind Utah Beach and destroy road and railway bridges over the Duke River. The client meant that many of these paratroopers landed far from the antenna drop zones. Many of the plans came in so low that they were met with machine gun fire. Some paratroopers died when their parachutes didn't have time to open. Others drawings in the fields which have been flooded by the Germans. Lack of radios and Torreon, which was Marsha and Philip hedgerows, made it hard for the man to gather together and two units. Some of the man didn't arrive at their targets until the afternoon when several of the causeways had already been cleared by the 4th Infantry Division as they moved up the beach. Trips at the 82nd Airborne began arriving at half past two in the morning with a primary objective of capturing two bridges over the river merged array and destroying two bridges over the do. 75% of these troops landed n or near their drops zones. Within TR's, they captured the important crossroads at some Merrick lease. The first time liberated. And they envision two regiments dropped on the west side of the merged array. Whereas they were scattered G2 missing there dropstones with many deaths resulting. Only 4% landed in the target area are many lambdas and swamps. They captured but couldn't hold the murderer a bridge at left, yeah, fighting for the cross and continued for days. Reinforcements arrived to add these American units at 0400 mentioned Chicago and mission Detroit, which brought trips and equipment. Many of these trips also landed far from there zones. There are heavy equipment made it difficult to land with large items such as jeeps shifting during the landing, crushing some of the personnel on board. After 24 R's, only 2500 men of the 101st on to thighs and man of the 82nd Airborne were under the control of their divisions. Approximately a third of the American force dropped. This confuse the Germans on fragmented their response as the Americans were broadly scattered. So it actually turned out to be a positive thing for the allies. The destruction of red our stations along the Normandy coast and the week before the invasion meant that the Germans didn't detect the approaching fleet until O2 100. The first Allied action on D-Day was the capture of the KM canal and bridges over the Jordan River. The veteran named Pegasus bridge and horse abridge using ICA lighter assault at 16 minutes past midnight, the bridges were quickly captured by the Oxfordshire on Buckingham Shirt, Light Infantry Regiment. The Third Parachute Brigade destroyed the five bridges over the divs. The Pathfinder, who were to set up red are Bacon's and lights for the paratroopers tasked with clearing the landing zone north and Rambo were blown off. Course, I'm set up the devices too far East. Many paratroopers then landed far from their intended drop zones. And it took some ours or even days to join their units. 0330 Major General Richard Gale arrived in the third wave with more troopers as well as anti-tank guns and JPS to secure the area from Contra attacks which had been launched by German troops in the immediate area. The 21st Panzer division having ordered to contour attack and O2 a 100, but it's later if needed, to seek approval to move the division. The orders didn't arrive until 0900. The meantime, he had put together a group of man on tanks to fight the British forces to the east of the ORN. 600 members of Britain's ninth battalion had been tasked with eliminating the enemy battery at Marvel, but only a 160 of them arrived at the rendezvous point. There command or left-handed kernel Terrence outweigh, decided to proceed regardless as if the task wasn't completed by 0600, the Germans could use the position to fire on the invasion fleet and trips due to land at Sword Beach. The Allies disabled the German far apart using plastic explosives at the Battle of Mervyn gun battery, with a loss of 75 lives outweigh surviving force withdrew with the aid of the first Canadian Parachute Battalion. The British 6th Airborne Divisions thus achieved its goals and was reinforced at midday by commanders of the first special service forget, who landed on Sword Beach and the sixth air landing brigade, who arrived in gliders at 2100 as part of operations mallard, the code name for the aerial component of D-Day. Let's talk about the famous beach landings, Utah Beach and the American sector was heavily defended. The eighth Infantry Regiment of the Fourth Infantry Division, where the first trips to land and 0650 strong parents forced their landing craft to the site and they landed 200 yards from the intended location. This turned out to be a better landing site as there was only one stronghold instead of 29, bomber Command had bombed the defense from a lower altitude. And so it was badly damaged. The strong currents and washed many of the underwater obstacles ashore. The first thing your officer ashore, it was Brigadier General Theodore Roosevelt January. He decided to start the war from right here and his words and ordered subsequent landings to bay, re-write it. The initial assault battalions were followed by 28 d d tags. They were followed by several waves of engineer on demolition teams to remove beach obstacles and clear the area directly behind the beach of obstacles and minds. Faster access for trips and tanks was created by blowing gaps in the seawall. Combat team started exiting the beach and 0900, some infantry where the through the flooded fails rather than take the road. They skirmish all day with the German 919th granite air regiment, who were armed with anti-tank guns and rifles by known the man strong points in the area and land 1300 yards sites have been disabled. The fourth Infantry Division didn't meet all their objectives at Utah Beach on D-Day as they had arrived too far south. But they land at 21 thousand trips with only a 197 casualties. Omaha Beach, also in the American sector, was the most heavily defended. It was assigned to the first and 29th infantry divisions. They were faced with the entire 352nd infantry division, rather than the single regiment of German soldiers they have been expecting to meet. Many landing craft were carried out by strong currents or delayed. Us bombers were afraid of hitting the landing craft and delay dropping their bombs. And so many of the obstacles on Omaha Beach were intact when the troops landed. Many landing craft were run a grind by sandbox on the Mannahatta weird and water up to their necks for 50 to 100 meters to reach the shore. Day day times were dropped 5 thousand yards from the shore of the 32 tanks, 27 were flooded and sank with a loss of 33 crew members. Sometimes which was disabled on the beach, continued to provide covering fire until they ran out of ammunition or we're deluged by the rising tide. The Germans fired from the cliffs above I'm casualties numbered around 2 thousand. Vehicles were prohibited from land. I get o at 30 giga problems clearing the beach of obstacles. A group of destroyers arrived at this time, I'm provided cover fire so loud bangs could resume. By LET morning, only 600 men had reached the higher grind as the beach could only be exited via heavily defended galleys, the Americans were able to clear lens and the beaches as the Germans started to run out of ammunition by midday. They also cleared the galleys of enemy defenses so vehicles could move off the beach. The beachhead was expanded over the next few days and the D-Day objectives for Omaha Beach were met by the 9th of June. Gold Beach was in the British sector landings there were set later at 0725 because the tides were different than the American sector beaches. Hi whens created difficulties for the landing vessels. Amphibious DD tanks were released close to shore or on the beach rather than farther eye to as had been the original plan at O6 20, the cruisers HMS Ajax and Argonaut knocked out three out of four guns at the battery out long assume air. The fourth gun fired intermittently and the afternoon, the garrison surrendered on the seventh of June. Aerial attacks fail to hit the strong point at Lohan mail. It continued to fire, causing damage until the 1600s when they armored vehicle royal engineers blew up its rear entrance. Another emplacement have been knocked out by the tanks at 0730. The inventory cleared the fortified high rises along the shore at advanced on targets and land. The number 47 Royal Marine commandos met their way towards the small port of poor loop ASA and captured at the next day, they only Victoria Cross of data, I am not so bravery award was awarded to Sergeant Major Stony Hollow us for his attack. M2 pill boxes at the mom flurry high point on a pill box has a small underground concrete forte that's used as an outpost. The 1st Battalion Royal Hampshire regiment captured our March and made contact with a Canadian forces at Juno Beach. The 352nd battalion fought hard to buy year, which was not captured by the Allies on the first day. There were a thighs and the Allied casualties at Gold Beach. The landing up the Canadian sector, Juno Beach, was delayed due to rough seas with a man arriving before their armor, leading to many casualties as they disembarked. Most of the offshore bombardments have not hit the German defenses. The Canadians created several exits from the beach with much difficulty. The beach and nearby streets were clogged with traffic, making it difficult for the troops to move inland. There were major German Armstrong points are of course FYI, so luma matte on sunburn, yeah. Surmount. The Times had to be cleared. On highest the highest fighting broke out. There was actual fighting in the streets. So we'll just habit for beanie. So Mayor, find the road covered by machine gun fire and placements lit and the afternoon, members of the ninth Canadian infantry brigade advanced or within sight of a carpi K airfield. They were low on ammunition and Doug n, for the night, the airfield became the scene of heavy fighting and wasn't captured for a month. Juno angle beaches together covered an area 12 miles wide and seven miles deep. By nightfall. There were 961 casualties at Juno Beach. Sword Beach was also in the British sector, 21 of 25 DD types which landed there, got ashore safely and provided cover for the infantry. The beach was heavily mined and full of obstacles, and so the beach clearing teams had a difficult job. The tide came in more quickly than expected due to winds and it became hard to maneuver the armor as the Bache became clogged. The first Special Service Brigade arrive to the site of private bill melon, the personal Piper of its commander, brigadier Simon Frasier, the 15th Lord love it. Number four, commando attack to German gun battery and the shore from the rear. French forces onto commander affiliate K for the first French soldiers to arrive in Normandy, Attacked, clearing the heavily fortified strong point of the casino at Rava bella with the end of the day, t tanks, after an RFID tag, the strong point near called ensue or1 was captured. The headquarters of the 736 Infantry Division, the large complex that made up the hilum strong point had survived the bombardment and wasn't captured until that night. At 2015, the Second Battalion King shops, your light inventory advanced towards CAN on fit. It came within a few miles at the time, but hard to withdraw due to lack of Armor supports. The 21st Panzer Division launched a contra attack at 1600 between sort on genome. It almost reached the channel but was opposed by the British third division, was recalled to join the fight between can and by Earth. There may have been as many as one thighs and casualties at Sword Beach. What were the art comes of D-Day Allied casualties on the first day where at least ten thighs and with 4,414 confirmed dead. The Normandy landings were the largest seaborne invasion and history. None of the key Allied objectives were achieved that day, namely the capture of Corita sound low and by you on the first day with all the beaches except Utah linked, the five beach heads were not connected until the 12th of June, was not completely captured until the 21st of July. The Germans ordered French civilians to leave combat zones and normal day freeing up space for military personnel. Civilian casualties during the first two days of the invasion are estimated to have been about 3 thousand. The Allies were clearly the victors. This was due to operation for two Church. The series of deceptions that confuse the Germans, air supremacy and the destruction of infrastructure by Allied bombers and the French resistance. Specialized armor on all the beaches, but Omaha provided the cover needed in decisiveness from the German High Command also contributed to the allied victory. Paris was finally liberated in August 1944. At that time, the Soviets were moving into German territory. Hitler was defeated at the Battle of the Bulge, a final unsuccessful country offensive. And December 1944, the British Americans and free French risk towards Berlin. On the way they encountered the horrors of Nazi concentration camps. There had been intelligence of the terrible treatment of Jews and other groups. But the extent of the extermination of the conditions that were opera fun shock to soldiers who liberated them. Auschwitz was liberated by the Red Army during the vanilla odor offensive on the 27th of January, 1945, Bergen-Belsen was liberated by the British on the 15th of April 1945. Ravensbruck was liberated by the Soviet Union on the 30th of April 1945. When the Allies reached Berlin, they find that adult Hitler wanted for some of the most serious crimes against humanity, african omitted had committed suicide. The Germans surrendered on the 8th of May 1945, not celebrated in the UK as VE Day victory in Europe Day. These other recollections of the D-Day veteran David teacher, a member of the number 71 Royal Air Force base unit. Jerry started to show the beach of the bite. Nine AM suddenly all **** that lays. The beach was under fire from shells, mortars, machine guns. We dive for cover. The same was covered in blood and vomit and flies began to arrive by the thigh zones, which created another nightmare. We continued all night and the following day with either break slowly, slowly we overcame all the nightmares. There was no lack of humor. A soldier coming ashore asked, is this a private beach? I was promised a private beach. If not, I'm not staying. And we heard my mother told me not to travel by air. She thought it was much safer by say, an army officer came ashore and a static, static has been off the beach quickly. He stopped to consult his map. I approached him, Sir, off the beach night. And who are you? He asked, sorry, no time for introductions. This was quoted in the Express. 81. Post War Britain : The post-war period, so many changes which impacted the country as a whole. The private lives of individuals and families. Let's hear a little bit more applied that the post-war period refers to the period from 1945 until 1979. The victory in World War II had come at a cost, both an economic and social terms. The late 1880s were a time of a stereotype with rationing still in effect until 1954 and spending very tightly controlled, prosperity resumed. And the 1980's, the Labor Party under clement Attlee, 1940's five general election and formed Britain's first majority government. Labour governed until 1951 when the conservatives returned under Churchill. Independence was granted to India in 1947, most of the empire's other colonies achieved independence. And the 1950's and 60's, the UK became an ally of the USA and the Cold War and help to form nato, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. In 1949, a military alliance which oppose the spread of Soviet Communism. The UK joined the European Economic Community on the 1st of January 1973. Immigration from within the British Empire and Commonwealth saw the birth of the multicultural society which the UK has become. It was actually welcomed by most people, either their walls, a speech in parliament by the conservative politician AOC compile, which remains quite famous and which he predicted rivers of blood because of the number of immigrants. He was actually asked to leave his post and the shadow cabinet because of that speech. But he did have support from some members of the public. There was a huge change and the demographic of the UK because of immigration, it changed to the religious demographics of the country. It changed the composition of communities. And it also change things like the way we ate with the carry becoming very, very popular. Most people regard that as a completely positive thing. In the 1980's at degree of prosperity, midlife, easier for both the middle and working classes. Either the UK was no longer a world superpower as it had been in the days of its empire. Labour and the Conservatives were not the main political parties after the Liberal Party did still exist. There was support for trade unions, regulation of business and nationalization of many older industries. So right after the war, the country moves slightly towards the left because social change at that point was very much needed. The discovery of oil in the North, say broad economic benefits other than 1970s saw slow economic growth, rising unemployment and labor strife. The loss of industries such as coal mining, shipbuilding, and manufacturing midlife difficult for many. London remand the leading financial center of Europe and a major world city, acid is today. There were major changes in education. The school leaving age was raised. The split between primary and secondary education was introduced and the grammar skills system was expanded on that dismantled in favor of comprehensive skills. Over time, there were wide ranging social reforms, such as the introduction of abortion, greater A's and obtaining a divorce, the abolition of the death penalty, and a changed public perception of LGBT lifestyles, which was something that previous generations haven't really discussed. The war had nearly bankrupted Britain. In December 1945, Britain took idle low-interest loan from America of $3.75 billion. Fiscal austerity was needed in order to rebuild the country and pay back the loan. Britain's colonies and client states were required to keep reserves. The American Marshall Plan of 194852 provided another 3.2 billion, which didn't need to be repaid. The plan required the UK to modernize its business practices and remove trade barriers. Rationing continued after the war until 1954. There was a very bad winter in 1946 to seven right after the war with coal and railway systems failing, factories closing a much of the population suffering shortages because of the cold. Rationing was also needed to fade the civilians and the British sector of occupied Germany. Highest wives carried out organized opposition to austerity and the Conservative Party against support. They returned to power under Winston Churchill in 1951. The most important initiative of the post-war labor government. It was the expansion of the welfare state and the finding of the National Health Service. Night, I would go out in the lemon, say, I have never met a British person who wouldn't defend the National Health Service tooth and nail, no matter what political persuasion or background they come from, it's something that the UK is very proud of. The National Insurance Act 1946, both upon the system of social security established in 1911, people of working age contributed weekly by buying a stamp. And people of older generations will still talk about paying your stump, meaning paying your national insurance contributions. And in return they received benefits such as disability and sick benefits or pension on healthcare and unemployment benefits. The NHS began operating in 1948 with a mission to provide cradle-to-grave health care free at the point of delivery. Industry such as coal, gas, electricity, and railways were nationalized. Labor expanded, low-cost counselor housing for the PR. Hardest thing was a big issue. And post-war Britain, there was a critical shortage of housing. Areas had destroyed about 0.5 million homes and many more have been damaged with repairs postponed until after the war. 750 thousand new homes were needed. There was a shortage of materials, builders on money. The shortage reach 1.5 million units in 1951150 thousand prefabricated units knew this pre-fabs were built. They were meant to be temporary, but there are still some standing in my title and people do live in them. Legislation was passed to keep rents low when the conservatives came to part, they prioritize heist building a 2.5 million new units were built, two-thirds that these were constructed by local consoles. The pressure to build lowered the standard of building. Unfortunately, policy move towards refurbishing existing dwellings. Slums were cleared on the inner cities became gentrified. The Golden Age, immigrants from Commonwealth nations arrived in the 1980's, mostly from the Caribbean and the Indian sub-continent. The Suez Crisis of 1956, when Israel invaded Egypt and was joined by Britain and France made it clear that the UK was no longer a world superpower. It could no longer afford to maintain a large empire. It had withdrawn from almost all its colonies by 1970. Nevertheless, at home, unemployment was low and the economy was growing. The Conservative Prime Minister Macmillan famously declared, let us be Franco Biden. Most of our people have never had it so good. Go around the country, go to the industrial towns, go to the farms, and you will see a state of prosperity such as we have never had in my lifetime, Noren date and the history of this country. The first motorways were constructed and the 1980's and sixties, Britain and Christ its role in the world economy, with English being one of the most widely spoken languages in the world, students from all over the globe wanted to attend British universities. The standard of living rows with new highs and lower unemployment and a burgeoning economy. More people could afford holidays on holiday camps became popular. The combination of Elizabeth the Second was broadcast on the young BBC television service. Before that, the BBC had been a radio service worldwide. 22 million people watched, plus tens of millions listen to on the radio. In 19, 51% of the population owned a TV. Eighty-two percent of households have a TV. By 1963, consumerism was on the rise on the socialism of the Labor Party fell out of favor for a time. Chain stores and shopping centers replaced smaller local shops. The landed gentry paid higher taxes on consumption became more equal in society. Lower paid workers saw an increase in their pay. Consumer spending and economic growth and Christ, washing machine ownership rose from 18% in 1955 to 29% in 1958. By 1966, it had reached 60%. By the end of the 1930's, Britain, I had become one of the world's most affluent countries. And by the early sixties, most Britons enjoyed a level of prosperity that had previously been the privilege of only a small minority. And that's according to Wikipedia. The European Union exceeded Breton in terms of home appliances with more telephones, Bridges, TV sets, cars, and washing machines per household. By the early 1980's, 80 to 90% of school leavers in France and West Germany undertook vocational training as compared to only 40% in the UK. Only 33% of British students stayed in education until the age of 18, compared to 80% in America and West Germany and 90% in Japan. The 1970s economic crisis, the UK's GDP fell from seventh place in the world in 1952121965 and 20th in 1975, economists give varying explanations for this. There were many trade unions strikes. The trade unions did have some points to mic, as people were getting poorer and the standard of living was slightly lower. This led to the so-called winter of discontent from 1978 to nine, when the public became irked by the inconvenience resulting from the several large public sector strikes. One positive economic development was the discovery of oil in the North say at the time, britain became a major exporter of oil to Europe during the 1980's energy crisis. The role of women after the Second World War, the nuclear family was seen as the foundation of the new welfare state. Women was still generally expected to stay at home while their husbands were the breadwinners of the family. 19.8, 5184% of women aged 45 to 49 were married. The average age for a first marriage was 27 for men on 24 for women. The benefit system was designed to support women and their roles as mothers and housewives. More women were interested in careers and roles outside of the home than previously. High swipes organizations were politically active, seeking support from mothers are more affordable home goods, for example, in 1952, there were calls for equal pay for male and female teachers on, for male and female civil servants. Girls were staying in education for longer education. The Education Act, 1944 was drafted and response to calls for educational and social reforms maybe than the aftermath of the war, it came into effect in 1947. It created transition from primary to secondary education aged 11th. The newly-elected Labour Party introduced the tripartite system of grammar skills, secondary modern skills on second rates technical skills. At that time they rejected a comprehensive school system, although it did come about later. Academic selection tasks would take them at age 11, unsuccessful students went to grammar skill. And in northern Ireland, where I come from, that still happens and in fact, I went to grammar school. Public schools were not part of the system and remained unchanged. So places like Aten and hero that parents paid phase to send their children to weren't affected by this legislation. School leaving edge was raised to 15. These changes were supported by the three major political parties of the time. Higher education expanded prodigiously. By 1957, Britain had 21 universities. This increase to 46. And the 1980's with new universities that cable East and glia, ASX can't Sussex on York. And it so happens that my aunt went to one of these universities in the 1980's. She went to Kala. Her generation was the first generation of women in my family who were able to go to University of Oxford and Cambridge remained the most prestigious universities and attracted many Commonwealth students. 82. The Cold War: So now we've come to the very last section of the course, britain and the Cold War as ever. They videos provide them for permission, but it's also good to check the article section for written articles and videos that give a little bit of extra information because this is a huge topic. I find a really good definition of the Cold War on Britannica, Cold War, the open yet restricted rivalry that developed after World War II between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Cold War was wedged on political, economic, and propaganda fronts and had only limited recourse to weapons. The term was first used by the English writer George Orwell and an article published in 1945 to refer to what he predicted would be a nuclear stalemate between two or three monstrous super States, each possessed of a weapon by which millions of people can be wiped out in a few seconds. Churchill may have indirectly influenced the Cold War and his Iron Curtain speech to Harry S Truman. When he said an Iron Curtain has descended across the continent. We talk about the Iron Curtain on the Eastern Bloc, the communist part of Europe at this point in history. And then the west of Europe. And after World War II, Germany had been partitioned into West Germany and East Germany and East Germany walls communist on, under the control of the Soviet Union. And the allies including Britain and America, had a part to play and the running of West Germany. But we're going to hear a little bit more about that in just a minute. Let's look at some of the key events of the Cold War as it would be viewed from a British perspective. The Greek Civil War and 1946. So a British forces sent to grace to defend it against the democratic army of grace, which was a communist organization with covert backing from the Soviets. Britain couldn't afford to keep up the campaign and grace due to post-war austerity. And it called on America to continue the defense at had started. The Truman Doctrine was a knight's to the 12th of March, 1947 by US President Harry S. Treatment at AMT oppose Soviet expansionism. The Soviets and the Americans had of course being allies during the Second World War. But now that the war was over, they become opposed to each other. The Truman Doctrine involved providing political, military, and economic support to states under threat by the Soviets. That was the foundation of US foreign policy and led to the Marshall Plan in 1947 on the formation of nato, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Nato is still very much in the news today. The Marshall Plan of 1947 was an American initiative which ran from 1948 to 1951, providing $15 billion in aid to 16 Western European states, including Britain, had two chief objectives to rebuild Europe after the Second World War and to stem the spread of Soviet influence, Britain was saved a grant of around $3 billion, which it used on debt repayment and defense. The Marshall Plan authenticated the special relationship that Churchill had sought with the states in order to create an allegiance against the Soviets. The formation of nato in 1949 was to create an alliance for defense, which included Britain, the USA, Canada, Belgium, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway on Portugal. In the original set of Nations, member states agreed to defend other member states if they were threatened by the USSR. And USSR stands for union of sovereign Soviet Republics. Britain was a leading member at the inception of nato. Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin, who was a member of climate outlays Labor government played a key role behind the scenes. He submitted the North Atlantic traded cabinet for approval on the 9th of March, 1949. And it was then signed by Bevin on the foreign ministers of 12 member states on the fourth of April, 1949. The West Berlin blockade in 1948 a current because as Germany had been left with ICT estate at the end of the Second World War, it had been divided into East and West Germany with the Allies running the West. East Germany was occupied by the Soviets. The Americans and British consolidated their sectors of Germany and to one sector named Buzz Zona. 1948, joined by the French, they created a new currency for their zone called the deutschmark. This provoked the Soviets. He felt that the western sectors of Germany were becoming too unified. Stalin block headed west Berlin on the 24th of July, 1948, cutting off the roads, railways and canals, the UK and the USA combined forces to drop food and supplies into the area from the air. The airlift provided the necessities for the people of West Berlin during the 11 months of the blockade, Berlin Walls partitioned and actually the Berlin Wall which kept the two halves of the city apart. Kim dine in 1989, the USSR lifted the blockade on the 12th of May, 1949. The Korean War broke out on the 25th of June, 1950 and ended on the 27th of July, 1953. It resulted when the communist North Korea invaded South Korea, which was not communist. Under the Truman Doctrine, the USA was committed to preventing States from coming under communist and plants. Britain sent 87 thousand troops to support the South Koreans on a $0.05 of them died. The Korean War is viewed as a turning point for nato, As the Soviet threat had been demonstrated to be real. And so the military alliances between member states where it reinforced the TV show mash, which is a show that I really love, shows public attitudes towards the Korean War on the Vietnam War. The public and the American public, as well as the British public, were not actually completely convinced that these wars were necessary. The cold war within Britain, britain susceptibility to espionage by the Soviets and it's mishandling of the CS crisis impacted negatively on its relationship with the USA during the Cold War, there were four espionage scandals and Britain which suggested it's intelligent system have faults and couldn't be entirely trusted. The Cambridge five we're aspiring who leaked intelligence to the USSR during and after the Second World War for several years. 1951, its members Guy Burgess adult the clean flat to the USSR, attracting media attention on leading the public TO assume that they have been spice. They're successful. Long-term espionage undermined Britain's foreign policy on the development of a nuclear deterrent that was developing at the time. The success of the Cambridge five brought Britain establishments and to question, why was it that they have been able to leak information for so long? The Cambridge Five, We're communist sympathizers and that's what motivated their actions. The vasa affair was another damaging incident. John vasa was a civil servants at the Admiralty who was fun to be a spy for the Soviet Union in 1962. He actually wasn't a communist, but he had been blackmailed by the Soviets. The scandal greatly embarrassed the McMillan government. The demo affair as very famous, it has been written up by a lot amid into several TV shows and films. And it came about when John perfume, Oh, who was Secretary of State for war, it was fine to be having an affair with Christine Keeler. It was also having an affair with a Soviet spy. You have Danny even off. So you could see that that was a risky situation. It may have not been a direct form of espionage, but it gives the impression of corruption and it caused damage to the UK, US relationship. Crisis was another embarrassment for Britain. It came about after the invasion of Egypt by Israel in 1956. Britain hadn't tended to invade Egypt as the important rate of the Suez Canal had been nationalized by President Nasser. It was Britain's men transport to and from its colonies and it's lost was a serious economic threat. The US had intended to form an alliance with Egypt against the Soviets. And they feared that an invasion of Egypt by Western nations would lead to an alliance between Egypt and the Soviets, the US, and formed the UK that it would not land at support to an invasion of Egypt. Britain ignored President Eisenhower's warning and formed a secret plan with France and Israel to invade. Britain was forced withdrawal due to economic pressure from the USA and the United Nations. President Eisenhower used his influence in the world Monetary Fund to block Britain's loan until it agreed to a ceasefire. The crisis highlighted that Britain was no longer a world super part and marr That's relationship with the US from whom had, had borrowed heavily. And it's around this period in history that Britain became referred to in the press as America as lapdog, which is a term that you sometimes hear today. And it was basically because Britain owed America a lot of money. And that meant that they kind of hard to support America and certain policy areas. The Cold War arms race, the Cold War arms race was the competition for nuclear supremacy between the USA and the USSR. This was based on a belief in nuclear deterrence. And study smarter gives us a good definition of this term. The nuclear deterrent was the belief that one's country's development and possession of nuclear weapons would discourage other states from attacking with their nuclear weapons, as they knew they would fierce retaliation and it's still a very contentious issue today. The idea of a nuclear deterrent. The athlete government of 1945 to 51 had been keen for Britain to develop its own nuclear weapons. The US had tested unused atomic bombs in 1945 against Japan. The Foreign Secretary, Ernest Bevin, wanted to see Britain develop a similar program. Davin said, we've got to have this thing over here, whatever it costs, we've got to have the bloody Union Jack on top of it. Britain became the third superpower with a nuclear arsenal in 1952 when it tested its atomic bomb, and it tested its hydrogen bomb in 1957, the US had stopped sharing its nuclear secrets with Britain after the Cambridge five scandal in 1951. And that meant that the British program of nuclear armament was carried out independently. As part of the mutual defense agreement of 1958, the USA began sharing nuclear secrets with Britain. Again, Prime Minister Harold Macmillan had worked hard to rebuild relations with the USA, and that's how that came about. Britain participated in the American Polaris sub aquatic muscles project. The campaign for nuclear disarmament. Sandy was founded in 1957, was created in response to growing fears about a nuclear war between the USA and the USSR. Nuclear weapons had enough power to obliterate the whole population of the planet. Can day marched on the older mosques and weapons research-based and bark shirt in 19581959 on the marches were attended by it thighs and supporters. Public concern over nuclear armament led to the 1980's three partial Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty. Prime Minister Harold Macmillan successfully negotiated with the trade date between Britain and the USA and the USSR. It band all above-ground nuclear testing and testing and the atmosphere are low ground and space on underwater. Britain. In the later Cold War, when Harold Wilson came to power in 1964, Britain took a back seat and the Cold War, Wilson at first stood against a program of nuclear arms which was dependent on America, saying Polaris will not be independent and it will not be British, and it will not detect rare. However, the Wilson government supported the retention of nuclear weapons. Wilson took no action to end Polaris, the US, UK submarine nuclear weapons program. Polaris became operational in 1968. Wilson was criticized by belabor, left by the public. The Vietnam War ran from 1955 until 1975. The UK government under Wilson refused to send troops to air. The US and Vietnam. Wilson express personal support for the war though. On the 17th of March, 196810 thousand people protested in London against the war, on the British support of the US in the war, there were riots outside the American Embassy and Grosvenor Square. Wilson won a second term in 1974, but did not fulfill the electoral promise of scrapping Polaris. Margaret Thatcher on the Conservative Party came to power in 1979, and she stayed in power until 1990. She was a staunch supporter of the nuclear deterrent. Her strong anti-communist feelings created a bond with US President Ronald Reagan. She worked hard with the US to develop Britain's independent nuclear deterrent. Trident missiles were purchased to replace the NIH obsolete Polaris Program. Thoughts are also permitted the US to install nuclear missiles at great uncommon in England with a major backlash from C and D, America and Britain put a huge amount of pressure on the USSR, which struggled to keep up and the arms race. The Soviet Union ended in 1991 after the policies of glasnost and perestroika brought up by, by Mikhail Gorbachev. Glasnost means openness and perestroika means reorganization. That it wasn't a move towards full democracy, but it was a move away from the excesses of communism. With the end of the Soviet Union, the Cold War ended. Soviet journalists dubbed such are the Iron Lady during the Cold War. And M, which has stuck. 83. Conclusion: Very well done on getting to the end of the epic journey, which is English history. I hope that you'll continue your reading in this area and watching documentaries, continuing to learn, because our attitudes to history are always changing and new information is always being uncovered. There are some links in the final article for the course on how you can continue your learning. And I'm hoping to see you again in another course. Well done.